Antarctica

Antarctica is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. It sits almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, about 40% larger than Europe. Most of the continent is covered by a thick ice sheet.

Antarctica is one of the coldest, driest, and windiest places on Earth. Even so, coastal areas can get quite warm in the summer. The continent is home to many unique animals such as penguins, seals, and tiny creatures like mites and tardigrades. Plants are rare, with most vegetation consisting only of lichen or moss.

People have known about Antarctica's ice shelves since 1820. Today, about 30 countries work together under the Antarctic Treaty System. Most people visit Antarctica for tourism, fishing, or scientific research. Human actions, such as pollution and climate change, are affecting this distant and delicate region.

Etymology

The name "Antarctica" comes from the word antarctic, which means "opposite to the Arctic." This word has roots in many languages, including Middle French, Latin, and Greek. Ancient writers like the Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote about a land far to the south a long time ago.

People in Europe once thought there was a big southern land called Terra Australis to balance the lands in the north. This idea lasted until Europeans discovered Australia. The name "Antarctica" was used in the 1890s. The continent is sometimes called the Great White South, a name inspired by the Great White North of Canada.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Antarctica

See also: Extreme points of Antarctica, List of mountains in Antarctica, List of ultras of Antarctica, and List of places in Antarctica

Antarctica is the southernmost continent on Earth. It is around the South Pole and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. It is the fifth-largest continent, covering more than 14.2 million km². Much of Antarctica is covered by a thick ice sheet, with only a few rocky areas visible.

The continent is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by a mountain range called the Transantarctic Mountains. Antarctica has many lakes hidden beneath its ice. The highest peak in Antarctica is Vinson Massif. Mount Erebus on Ross Island is an active volcano.

Geologic history

Main article: Geology of Antarctica

Further information: Geology of the Antarctic Peninsula

Antarctica was once part of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. It began to break apart about 183 million years ago. Long ago, Antarctica had a warm climate and was covered with forests.

During a time called the Paleozoic era, Antarctica had a mild climate. Rocks like sandstones and limestones formed there. Later, it began to cool as it moved closer to the South Pole. Forests grew there until the end of the Permian period.

In another time called the Mesozoic era, Antarctica was warm again. Many plants grew, and the first four-legged animals appeared. Dinosaurs lived in Antarctica during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

As Antarctica moved further south, the climate became much colder. About 30 million years ago, a strong ocean current formed around Antarctica. This led to large ice sheets that covered most of the continent. Today, scientists study Antarctica’s hidden geology using remote sensing and radar to learn about its past.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Antarctica

Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest continent on Earth. Near the coast, temperatures can be above 10 °C in summer but fall below −40 °C in winter. Far inland, summer temperatures can reach about −30 °C but drop well below −80 °C in winter.

The continent is a polar desert, with very little snow—about 150 mm (6 in) of water each year. Some places get even less, with less than 50 mm (2 in) yearly. Strong winds are common across Antarctica.

Climate change

Antarctica's ice is changing. Since 2002, it has been losing a lot of ice each year. In 2023, the area of Antarctic sea ice was much smaller than usual, reaching a new low. During the summer, the sea ice covered less area than it usually did in the past.

Ozone depletion

Main article: Ozone hole

Scientists have studied the ozone layer above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, they found a large area with less ozone, called the 'ozone hole.' This happens because some chemicals break down the ozone. The very cold temperatures in Antarctica help create special clouds that make these reactions faster. An international agreement from 1987 has helped reduce these harmful chemicals. The ozone hole is expected to slowly heal and return to earlier levels by the 2060s.

The changes in the ozone can affect the weather above Antarctica. They can cool the air high up, which helps keep very cold air near the South Pole. This can also influence how much sea ice forms around Antarctica.

Biodiversity

See also: Antarctic realm, Antarctic microorganism, and Wildlife of Antarctica

Most animals in Antarctica are from species that lived there long ago. They survived very cold times by hiding in warmer spots.

Antarctica has many animals, like tiny mites, lice, fleas, and small creatures called tardigrades. The biggest land animal is a tiny midge Belgica antarctica, about the size of a small ant. Antarctic krill is very important in the ocean, feeding animals like whales, seals, and penguins. Marine life includes penguins, whales, and seals. About 40 kinds of birds live near Antarctica, such as penguins and gulls. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that makes its home during the dark, cold winter.

Many types of fungi live in Antarctica, helping shape the land. These fungi can survive very cold temperatures. Plants are rare because of the harsh weather, with only a few kinds of moss and liverwort. There are only three types of flowering plants, found near the coast. Algae are common in the water and sea ice, and tiny life called bacteria has been found deep under the ice.

History of exploration

Main articles: History of Antarctica, Colonization of Antarctica, and Farthest south

See also: List of Antarctic expeditions, Women in Antarctica, and List of polar explorers

People have long thought there was a land in the far south. Old maps showed a place called Terra Australis. They believed it balanced the land in the north.

In the late 1700s, Captain James Cook came close to Antarctica but could not land because of the ice. In the early 1800s, explorers began to see the icy lands. By the mid-1800s, people started landing on parts of Antarctica.

In the 1900s, many famous explorers visited Antarctica. Roald Amundsen reached the South Pole in 1911. Since then, many others have explored the continent and made important discoveries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Antarctica

See also: Religion in Antarctica

Antarctica has very few permanent residents. Most people there are scientists and support staff working at research stations. The number of people there changes with the seasons, with around 1,200 people in the winter and about 4,800 in the summer. There are two special bases where only civilians live.

The first baby born in Antarctica was a Norwegian girl named Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in 1913. Another important milestone was the birth of Emilio Marcos Palma in 1978, who was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland.

Politics

Antarctica's status is guided by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, known as the Antarctic Treaty System. This system includes all land and ice south of 60° S. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States. Since then, 42 more countries have acceded to the treaty. Decisions are made by consensus, not by a vote. The treaty sets Antarctica aside for science and protects its environment.

Today, seven countries claim parts of Antarctica. Some of these countries recognize each other’s claims, but not all countries agree. New claims have been paused since 1959. Some claims, like those by Argentina, Britain, and Chile, overlap and cause disagreement. Other claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway do not overlap and are recognized by each other. Countries that are part of the Antarctic Treaty do not recognize any claims, though some have shown interest in the past.

Economy and tourism

Main article: Tourism in Antarctica

See also: Telecommunications in Antarctica, Transport in Antarctica, and Crime in Antarctica

Antarctica has some minerals like coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, and others, but there is not enough to mine. A special rule from 1998 helps protect Antarctica's environment.

People have visited Antarctica as tourists since 1957. They come to see animals, especially Adélie, King, and Gentoo penguins. Many tourists come on cruise ships. The number of visitors went down after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Some people think there should be limits on tourism to keep the environment safe.

Research

Main article: Research stations in Antarctica

Many scientists work in Antarctica. In the summer, over 4,000 people help with research, but in the winter, fewer people stay because of the cold.

There are more than 70 research stations. The biggest is McMurdo Station from the United States, where more than 1,000 people can live.

Scientists study many things. They look at how glaciers move, how animals live in the cold, and what space looks like from Antarctica. The IceCube Neutrino Observatory at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station is a big machine that helps us learn about tiny space particles called neutrinos. Antarctica's dry, icy ground is good for finding meteorites, which tell us about the early Solar System.

Culture

The first movie footage of Antarctica was made in 1904. Some famous Antarctic movies include South, With Byrd at the South Pole, and The Secret Land.

Some fiction movies were also made in Antarctica, like Mr. Forbush and the Penguins and Antarctica.

The Antarctic Film Festival happens every year at research bases.

The southernmost music festival in the world, Icestock, happens at McMurdo Station. In 2011, Alice Giles, a harpist, became the first professional musician to play in Antarctica.

People have done sports events in Antarctica, like the Antarctic Ice Marathon & 100k ultra race, Antarctica Marathon, and Antarctica Cup Yacht Race. People have also played football there since the early 1900s.

Two holidays are celebrated in Antarctica: Midwinter Day on the winter solstice and Antarctica Day on December 1.