History of Anglo-Saxon England

Anglo-Saxon England covers the time from the end of the Roman Empire's rule in Britain in the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. During this time, new groups of people called the Anglo-Saxons came to live in Britain. They brought their own language, called Old English, and many new customs.

At first, England had many small kingdoms, each ruled by different families. Some important kingdoms were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex. In the 7th century, these kingdoms started to follow the Christian faith, thanks to missionaries from Ireland and other places.

Later, Vikings from Scandinavia began visiting and settling in England. One king from Wessex, Æthelstan, brought most of England together under his rule in 927, becoming the first king of a single Kingdom of England. There were still battles and changes in leaders until 1066, when William, the Duke of Normandy came in and took control. This marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon time, but their culture helped shape England.

Terminology

The term "Anglo-Saxons" is used today to describe the people who spoke Old English in Britain. This name helps avoid confusion. Words like "Saxons" or "Angles" could mean either all Old English speakers or just some groups. The word "Anglo-Saxon" wasn’t used much until later, but it was sometimes used between the 8th and 10th centuries.

Before the 8th century, people often called the Old English speakers "Saxons." This word originally described raiders along the coasts of the North Sea and Gaul. By the 8th century, writers like Bede, Alcuin, and Saint Boniface started calling the group in Britain the "English" people. The term “English” became more common and showed a growing sense of unity among these groups.

End of Roman era and Anglo-Saxon origins

Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

The Anglo-Saxon period began in the 5th century AD, after the Romans left Britain. Before this, during the late 4th century, Britain and nearby lands like Gaul and Germania began to face difficulties. By around 430 AD, many changes occurred in daily life, including new building styles and ways of dressing. These changes happened partly because people moved into Britain from areas near the North Sea, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark.

Even before the Romans left, soldiers who spoke German lived in Britain. The word "Saxon" was used by Roman writers to describe raiders from northern lands. Over time, these groups became more common in Britain. Christianity had begun in Britain during Roman times and kept growing, with help from Ireland. Important people like Saint Patrick and Columba helped bring Christianity to the British Isles.

Rapid cultural change (400–550 AD)

Main article: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain

After the Romans left Britain around 410 AD, the country changed a lot. Local leaders tried to protect against attacks from groups like the Saxons, Picts, and Scoti. Over time, the old Roman ways faded, and a new culture grew. People from northern Europe came in, and new Anglo-Saxon communities rose, especially in eastern Britain. The western areas kept their old British traditions longer. This time was full of mixing and changing, as different people and cultures helped shape what would become England.

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

The early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England started as small states along the coast and inland during the 5th and 6th centuries. Over time, these kingdoms grew and joined together, forming larger areas. Traditional history often mentions seven main kingdoms, though the number changed often as rulers fought for power.

Important early kingdoms included East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria — which began as two smaller kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira — and Wessex. Smaller kingdoms such as Essex, Kent, and Sussex also existed. These kingdoms were founded by groups of people who arrived in small ships and settled in different parts of Britain. Some historians talk about strong rulers who led over others as bretwalda, with Ælle of Sussex being one of the earliest mentioned.

"Heptarchy" and Christianisation (550-800 AD)

Ceawlin, a king of the Gewisse in the 6th century, made his kingdom bigger. He took important places like Cirencester, Gloucester, and Bath. But when fights happened among the Anglo-Saxons, he had to leave.

King Æthelberht of Kent made one of the first written law codes in a Germanic language. In 595, Augustine came to Kent to share Christianity. He built a church in Canterbury. King Æthelberht and many others joined the Christian faith.

Later, Aidan, an Irish monk, started a monastery on the Isle of Lindisfarne. He helped share Christianity in northern England. In 664, a meeting at Whitby Abbey chose to use Roman Christian ways instead of Irish ones.

The kingdom of Mercia became strong under Offa of Mercia. He built Offa's Dyke, a long earth wall that marked the border with Wales.

Ascendency of Wessex and the Vikings (9th century)

Main articles: Danelaw, Viking Age, and Alfred the Great

In the 9th century, the kingdom of Wessex became very strong. In 825, King Egbert of Wessex won a battle against the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun. This battle ended Mercian power. Egbert then took control of much of southern England and was called "Bretwalda," meaning ruler.

During this time, Viking raiders from Denmark and Norway started attacking England. These attacks began in 793 and happened more often each year. In 865, a big Viking army, called the Great Heathen Army, came to England. They took over many kingdoms, but Wessex, led by King Alfred the Great, stayed safe. In 878, Alfred’s army beat the Vikings at the Battle of Edington. After this, the Vikings left Wessex and made their own area called the Danelaw. Alfred built strong towns and a big army to keep Wessex safe from more attacks.

English unification (10th century)

In the 10th century, English kings worked to bring different parts of England together under one ruler. After King Æthelred died in 911, his daughter Æthelflæd helped her brother Edward take back areas controlled by Vikings. Edward and the kings after him built strong towns to help protect their people and push back against Viking forces. By the time Edward died in 924, he ruled most of England south of the Humber River. His son Æthelstan became the first king of all England after he took control of Northumbria in 927.

During this time, the kings of West Saxony brought areas like Mercia, parts of Denmark, and Northumbria under their rule. This helped create a more unified England, even though people still remembered their own local traditions. Kings like Edmund and Eadred had to work hard to control the north. By the time Edgar became king in 959, he was recognised by other British kings. The mixing of Danish and Anglo-Saxon cultures had a lasting effect, with many English words and place names coming from Old Norse.

England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest (978–1066)

Edgar died in 975. He left the throne to his older half-brother Edward, who was only about 12 years old. Edward's time as king was difficult, and he was killed in 978. Then Edward's younger brother Æthelred became king.

Æthelred had many problems during his rule, including attacks from Viking raiders. He tried to keep England safe by giving the Vikings money to go away, but this often made the attacks worse.

In 1013, a Danish king named Sven Forkbeard came to take over England. This forced Æthelred to leave the country. After Sven died, Æthelred came back. But soon after, his son Edmund fought against another Danish leader, Cnut. They shared England for a short time, but Edmund died not long after. This left Cnut as the sole ruler of England. Cnut also ruled Denmark and Norway.

After Cnut died, his sons argued over who should be king. Finally, Edward the Confessor became king in 1042 with help from important families. When Edward died in 1066, Harold Godwinson was chosen as king. But William, Duke of Normandy, and Harald Hardrada of Norway also wanted to be king. Harold fought Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge and won. But then Harold had to hurry south to fight William. Sadly, Harold was defeated at the Battle of Hastings, and William became the new king of England.