Peru

Peruvian territory has a long history, with ancient civilizations like the Caral–Supe civilization, one of the earliest in the Americas, and later the impressive Inca Empire. Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821 and completed it in 1824 after the battle of Ayacucho.

Today, Peru is a representative democratic republic with main economic activities including mining, manufacturing, agriculture, and fishing. The country is known for its rich cultural diversity, with mixtures of Mestizo, Amerindian, European, African, and Asian heritage. Peru’s cuisine is widely celebrated, with Lima recognized as a global culinary capital, featuring renowned restaurants such as Central and Maido.

Etymology

The name "Peru" might come from Birú, a local ruler near the Bay of San Miguel. Spanish explorers in 1522 thought this was the southern end of the New World. When Francisco Pizarro traveled south, they used the name Perú.

Another story tells of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess and a Spanish explorer. He said the name Birú came from a person the Spanish met. The Spanish crown made the name Peru official. Later, after gaining independence, it became the Peruvian Republic, and now it is the Republic of Peru.

History

Main article: History of Peru

See also: Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru, Agricultural history of Peru, and Economic history of Peru

Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru

Main articles: Pre-Columbian Peru and Andean civilizations

The earliest signs of people living in Peru were found around 12,500 BCE at a place called Huaca Prieta. These people farmed using irrigation and terracing; they also raised camelid animals and fished. They shared things among each other through reciprocity and redistribution. One of the oldest known societies in Peru was the Caral-Supe civilization, which lived along the Pacific coast between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. Later, many different cultures grew up in coastal and highland areas of Peru. The Cupisnique culture was one example before the Inca culture.

The Chavín culture lived from 1500 to 300 BCE, centered around a special religious site in Chavín de Huantar. After the Chavín, many smaller cultures grew and changed over the next thousand years. On the coast, some of these included the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, Chimu, and Moche.

The Moche people, who were strongest between years 100 BCE and 800 CE, were good at building water systems, making pots, constructing buildings, and working with metal. The Chimu built big cities along northern Peru’s coast, with their main city at Chan Chan near today’s Trujillo. In the highlands, the Tiahuanaco culture near Lake Titicaca and the Wari culture also created large towns.

In the 1400s, the Incas grew into a strong empire, the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas, with their capital in Cusco. They started small but grew to control most of the Andean region. Leaders like Pachacuti and Topa Inca Yupanqui helped them expand. The Inca empire, called Tawantinsuyu, stretched from southern Colombia to northern Chile. The Inca worshipped Inti, the sun god, and believed their king was the "child of the sun."

Conquest and colonial period

Main articles: Spanish conquest of Peru and Viceroyalty of Peru

In 1532, Spanish explorers led by Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa at the Battle of Cajamarca. This started a long fight that ended with Spanish rulers taking control of the land, called the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its main city in Lima. Many native people became sick from diseases the Spanish brought and faced big changes in their lives.

The Spanish focused on mining, especially silver and gold from places like Potosí and Huancavelica. They brought in African slaves to help with the work. The Spanish also spread Catholicism across South America, building many churches and changing some Inca temples. By the 1700s, changes in money and trade caused unrest, including uprisings like that of Túpac Amaru II. These problems later helped start movements for independence in the early 1800s.

Independence

In the early 1800s, Peru won its independence after battles led by José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. San Martín announced Peru’s independence in 1821, and Bolívar finished the fight with wins at the Battle of Junín and the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824. During this time, Peru had many government problems but started to build its own identity.

19th century

After independence, Peru had times of peace and times of trouble. Under President Ramón Castilla, the country grew because of guano sales. But by the 1870s, these resources ran out, causing debt and fights over power. The War of the Pacific with Chile from 1879 to 1884 brought big losses for Peru, including land. The war ended with treaties and work to rebuild the nation.

20th century

Peru had many changes and some calm times in the 1900s. The Great Depression brought trouble, leading to new leaders. At times, military leaders took control, like General Juan Velasco Alvarado, who changed land rules. The country kept facing money problems, and in the 1980s, rebel groups like Sendero Luminoso caused upset. President Alberto Fujimori helped the economy but also had problems with human rights.

21st century

Peru kept facing political and money challenges in the 2000s and beyond. Leaders changed often, sometimes because of impeachment. The COVID-19 pandemic hurt the country a lot, showing poor conditions for many people. Political unrest continued with many protests and quick changes in leaders. Recently, Peru has worked on fighting corruption and keeping the economy growing while handling social issues.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru

Peru is in western South America. It borders Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, and the Pacific Ocean. The country has three main areas: the coastal plain, the Andes mountains, and the Amazon rainforest. The Andes have the highest peak, Huascarán, and the large Lake Titicaca. Peru has many rivers. The Amazon River starts there and flows through much of the country.

Main article: Climate of Peru

Peru has many different climates because of its mountains and coast. The coast is dry and warm. The mountains have cold, rainy areas. The Amazon region is hot and wet.

Main article: Wildlife of Peru

Peru has many plants and animals. It includes birds, mammals, reptiles, and fish. Peru is one of the world's most biodiverse countries. It has many unique species found only there.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

Peru is a semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system. The government has three parts: the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The Congress of Peru has 130 members who are chosen for five years. The president is the head of state and also leads the government. The president is chosen for five years and cannot be reelected right away. The president picks ministers to help run the country.

Peru uses a multi-party system for elections. The last big election was in April 2021. Free Peru won the most seats in Congress. The president is chosen by a two-round system if no candidate gets most of the votes in the first round. Elections are run by several national groups to make sure they are fair.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru

Peru has a big economy and is one of the larger economies in the world. Its economy has grown fast, especially in the 2000s. Peru's wealth comes from selling natural resources like copper and gold. But not everyone in Peru benefits equally, and some people still live in poverty.

Peru’s economy changes over time. Leaders have tried many ways to make the country richer. Today, Peru’s economy depends on mining, agriculture, and tourism. Mining is very important because Peru makes many valuable minerals. Agriculture is also key, with Peru growing many different foods. Tourism is growing fast, with many visitors coming to see places like Machu Picchu.

Demographics

Peru has about 33.4 million people. It is the fourth most populous country in South America. Most people live near the coast. Fewer people live in the mountains and jungle. Major cities include Lima metropolitan area, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo.

Peru has many different racial and ethnic groups. The largest group is mestizo. There are also Indigenous people, Whites, Blacks, and East Asians. Spanish is the main language. Quechua and other Indigenous languages are also spoken, especially in rural areas. Most Peruvians are Catholic, but other religions are also present. Education is free and required. There are many schools and universities across the country.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Peru

Peruvian culture is shaped by Iberian and Andean traditions, with influences from European, Asian, and African groups. Art in Peru dates back to ancient times, with early cultures creating pottery, textiles, and jewelry. The Incas built impressive structures like Machu Picchu. During colonial times, art often focused on religious themes, and later evolved into many modern styles.

Peruvian art began with ancient Andean civilizations before the Spanish arrived. These cultures created decorative works from gold, silver, and ceramics. Later, the Inca Civilization built amazing architecture, including Machu Picchu. After the Spanish came, art mixed European styles with local traditions.

Peruvian literature includes stories from before the Spanish arrived, written by people after the Spanish introduced reading. After Peru became independent, new styles like Costumbrism and Romanticism appeared. Today, famous writers like Mario Vargas Llosa are known worldwide.

Music in Peru has roots in Andean, Spanish, and African traditions. Instruments like the quena, tinya, and charango are popular. Peruvian folk dances include marinera and huayno. The country also has famous rock and pop musicians.

Peruvian movies have had success in Latin America. Early films began in Iquitos, and Peru created the first animated 3-D film in Latin America. Directors like Claudia Llosa have won awards for their films.

Peruvian food mixes Amerindian and Spanish food with influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Popular dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Lima is known for its great restaurants.

Football is the most popular sport in Peru. The national team has played in the FIFA World Cup and won the Copa América twice. Other popular sports include volleyball, surfing, and karate. Peru has won many medals at the Pan American Games.