Reconquista

The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for 'reconquest') or the fall of al-Andalus was a long series of battles by Christian areas in northern Iberia against the Muslim-ruled area called al-Andalus. Al-Andalus had been part of the Visigothic Kingdom before the Muslim Conquest of 711. The Reconquista ended in 1492 when the Catholic Monarchs of Spain captured Granada, ending Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.

The Reconquista is said to have started at the Battle of Covadonga around 718 or 722. This was about ten years after the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula began. In this battle, the army of the Kingdom of Asturias won the first Christian victory against the Umayyad Caliphate. By the early 1100s, the Umayyad state of Córdoba split into smaller states called taifas. The northern kingdoms moved forward, often making these states pay parias – tribute for protection.

Later, in the 1200s, the Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragón, Navarre, and Portugal gained more land after an Almohad resurgence. After the important Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, big Muslim-held cities like Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248 were taken by Christian forces. Granada became the last Muslim-ruled state. After the surrender of Granada in January 1492, all of Iberia was under Christian rule.

The idea of the Reconquista has inspired festivals like Moros y cristianos in parts of the Valencian Community and Spanish America. Today, scholars see it as a complicated process with differences in each area, not just a simple, never-ending fight.

Concept and duration

The term 'Reconquista' was not used during medieval times. It was made up by historians much later.

There were times when Christians and Muslims lived together peacefully and even made alliances.

The idea of a religious "reconquest" grew stronger after the Crusades, which started in the late 11th century. Later, the idea of the Reconquista was used for nationalistic and political purposes in Spain, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Background

Further information: Islam in Spain

Landing in Visigothic Hispania and initial expansion

Further information: Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Battle of Guadalete

In 711, a large army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and fought the king of the Visigoths, Roderic, at the Battle of Guadalete. Roderic's army was weaker because of internal problems, and many soldiers left before the battle. After the defeat, many towns were taken by the new rulers. Some places agreed to keep their independence by making treaties.

Islamic rule

Main articles: Berbers and Islam and Berber Revolt

After taking control, new leaders were appointed from far away. There were also problems between the different groups of people who had come to rule the land. These tensions sometimes caused difficulties. The new rulers continued to expand their control, reaching areas north of the Pyrenees. However, they faced strong resistance, especially in battles such as the Battle of Toulouse and later the Battle of Tours in 732, where they were defeated by forces led by Charles Martel. Despite this loss, Muslim rule continued in the Iberian Peninsula for many centuries.

Early Reconquista

Beginning of the Reconquista

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

Higher taxes on Christians in lands ruled by Muslims caused some people to rise up. In about 722, a Muslim army moved north to stop a rebellion led by Pelagius of Asturias. Pelagius won an important battle at Covadonga, which started the Reconquista—the Christian effort to take back the Iberian Peninsula.

Two small northern areas, Navarre and Asturias, stayed independent. Muslim rulers in Córdoba could not control areas beyond the Pyrenees mountains, but they tried to strengthen their rule within the Iberian Peninsula. Even though there were attacks into Asturias, this area stayed hard to control for Muslim forces.

After Pelagius died, his son Favila took over but was killed by a bear. Pelagius’s family kept ruling, and their kingdom grew slowly. Later leaders like Alfonso I expanded into places such as Galicia. By the time of Alfonso II, the kingdom was well established and was recognized by leaders like Charlemagne and the Pope. The discovery of St. James the Great’s bones in Santiago de Compostela brought many visitors from across Europe, connecting Asturias more closely with the rest of Europe.

Frankish invasions

Main articles: Umayyad invasion of Gaul and Marca Hispanica

After Muslims took over parts of what is now France, they were stopped at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. Later, Charlemagne made a region called the Spanish March to protect his southern borders. This included places such as Catalonia.

Charlemagne went across the Pyrenees mountains in 778 to help local leaders fight against a Muslim ruler but had to leave after his army was ambushed at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. Over time, places like Barcelona, Pamplona, Aragon, and Catalonia grew into small independent areas influenced by the Franks. They helped protect the Pyrenees passes and keep the area stable for many years.

Reconquista as crusade

Main article: Iberian Crusades

The Reconquista was sometimes seen as a kind of crusade. In this time, Christian rulers fought against Muslim rule in Spain. Pope Alexander II approved the capture of a city in 1064 to help prepare for crusades. Later popes encouraged Christians in Spain to fight Muslims. They offered the same spiritual rewards as those fighting in the Holy Land. During the Second Crusade, some crusaders helped capture Lisbon and other cities in Spain.

Popes supported these battles and called them crusades. One pope even gave a special title and money to a Spanish king for capturing cities from Muslim rulers. The Church saw these wars as true crusades, even when most fighters were from Spain itself.

Northern Christian realms

See also: Spain in the Middle Ages § Medieval Christian Spain, and Portugal in the Middle Ages § Reconquista in Portugal

The northern parts of the Iberian Peninsula stayed safe in tough, mountainous areas. Around the 10th century, these areas started to grow southwards. The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova in 1031 helped these northern kingdoms grow. After the Kingdom of Navarre divided in 1035, many new Christian kingdoms appeared.

Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

See also: Kingdom of Galicia and Duchy of Cantabria

The Kingdom of Asturias was in the Cantabrian Mountains, a rainy, mountainous part of northern Iberia. It was the first Christian kingdom, started by a leader named Pelagius. He united local groups to stand up to Muslim rule. The kingdom grew from small groups into a stronger land. Kings like Alfonso III wanted to take back older Christian lands further south.

Kingdom of León (910–1230)

Main articles: Kingdom of León, Kingdom of Galicia, County of Portugal, and Portugal in the Reconquista

Alfonso III made León his capital and organized his lands. After his death in 910, the kingdom became known as León. Leaders like Ordoño II attacked cities such as Toledo and Seville. Later kings faced challenges but still moved further south.

Kingdom of Castile (1037–1230)

Main article: Kingdom of Castile

Ferdinand I led Castile in the mid-11th century and captured cities like Coimbra. After his death, his sons fought for control. Alfonso VI took over and captured the important city of Toledo in 1085, a big step for Christian forces.

Kingdom of Pamplona / Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)

Main article: Kingdom of Navarre

The Kingdom of Pamplona began when a local leader named Íñigo Arista declared independence. It grew under leaders like Sancho the Great, who added lands including parts of Castile and Leon. Later, it became smaller and was called Navarre.

Kingdom and Crown of Aragon (1035–1706)

Main articles: Kingdom of Aragon, County of Barcelona, Principality of Catalonia, Kingdom of Valencia, Kingdom of Mallorca, and Crown of Aragon

Aragon started as part of Navarre, then grew under leaders like Ramiro I. In 1137, it joined with Barcelona, forming the Crown of Aragon. This group added lands across Iberia and the Mediterranean, including Valencia and Mallorca.

Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1249)

Main article: Portugal in the Reconquista

In 1139, Afonso Henriques declared himself King of Portugal after a big battle. With help from crusaders, Portugal took cities like Lisbon and Santarém. By 1249, Portugal had captured the southern area of Algarve, finishing its part in the Reconquista.

Minor Christian realms

Minor Christian realms were the Kingdom of Viguera (970–1005), the Lordship of Albarracín (1167–1300), the Principality of Tarragona (1129–1173), and the Principality of Valencia (1094–1102).

Southern Islamic realms

Further information: al-Andalus

Umayyads

Main articles: Emirate of Córdoba and Caliphate of Córdoba

In the 9th century, leaders in faraway cities wanted to be independent from Córdoba. In 929, Abd-ar-Rahman III became Caliph and took control of the military, religion, and government. He fought against Christian kingdoms in the north. Later, his grandson was controlled by a powerful advisor named Almanzor.

Taifas

Main article: Taifa

After Almanzor's death, civil wars split the Islamic lands into small kingdoms called taifas. These small kingdoms often fought each other. This allowed Christian kings to advance. Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile captured Toledo in 1085. The taifa rulers asked for help from a Berber leader named Yusuf ibn Tashfin.

Almoravids

Main article: Almoravid dynasty

The Almoravids, a Berber group, came to the Iberian peninsula to unite the taifas. They were less tolerant of Christians and Jews than previous rulers. They defeated a Christian king at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086 but were later stopped by a Christian warrior known as El Cid in Valencia in 1094.

Almohads

Main article: Almohad Caliphate

The Almohads from North Africa took control of most of the Islamic lands in Spain. They were defeated by Christian forces at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. After this, they lost most of their lands. By 1252, only the Emirate of Granada remained.

Granada War and the end of Muslim rule

Main articles: Granada War and Treaty of Granada (1491)

The final part of the Reconquista happened when Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Emirate of Granada in 1482. The war ended in 1492 when Granada surrendered. Many Muslims left Spain or were enslaved, marking the end of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.

Infighting

During the Reconquista, Christian and Muslim rulers often fought among themselves. Christian kingdoms sometimes fought each other or even worked with Muslim kings. For example, a Christian warrior named El Cid fought for a Muslim ruler in battles against other Christian forces. There were also wars between Christian kings, like conflicts between leaders of Castile and León.

Muslim rulers in the Iberian Peninsula also had their own disagreements. Different Muslim groups sometimes supported rival leaders, leading to battles between them. When Christian armies moved into Muslim lands, some Muslim rulers asked for help from others, like the leaders of the Almoravid and Almohad movements. These outside forces sometimes turned against the local Muslim rulers after helping them.

Christian repopulation

Further information: Medieval demography and Repoblación

The Reconquista was not just about battles; it was also about people moving to new places. Christian kings encouraged their people to move into areas that had been left empty when Muslims moved away. This helped to build strong communities that could protect the land.

One important area for new settlers was the Douro Basin in the north. People lived north of the Douro River from the 9th to the 10th centuries using a system called "presura," where families could claim land they could work and defend. South of the river, special charters called fueros gave people rights and protections. These charters helped towns grow and gain power, allowing them to support their kings with soldiers when needed. Over time, these charters shaped the way people lived and governed themselves in many parts of Spain.

Christian military culture

Jim Bradbury noted that not all Christian fighters in the Reconquista were driven by religion. Some were rulers who were not religious leaders, while others were special groups like the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller, and Teutonic Knights. These groups often fought against Muslim forces. Sometimes, Christian armies worked together with Muslim leaders, and some Christian soldiers even fought for Muslim rulers when they were paid. One well-known example is El Cid, a Christian leader who worked for the Islamic kings of Zaragoza.

Christian armies had two main types of soldiers: cavalry and infantry. Cavalry were often nobles or wealthy people who could afford horses. They would throw javelins from far away and then charge with spears. Infantry were usually peasants who fought with bows, spears, and short swords to support the cavalry. Their weapons included longbows, composite bows, and crossbows. At first, soldiers wore armor made of leather and iron, with helmets and round or kidney-shaped shields. Later, armor got better, and by the 14th and 15th centuries, knights often wore full plate armor.

Conversions and expulsions

Main articles: Treaty of Granada (1491), Alhambra decree, Expulsion of the Moriscos, Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain, and Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal

When Christian rulers took over areas that had been ruled by Muslims, they made people pay high taxes if they did not change their religion to Christianity. In 1492, about 200,000 Jewish people were forced to leave Spain. The next year, more rules were created to push Jews to change their religion. By 1502, everyone in the Kingdom of Castile was required to become Catholic. Later, in 1526, similar rules were applied to Muslims in the Kingdom of Aragon.

Spanish Inquisition

Main article: Spanish Inquisition

Many people with ancestors who were once Jewish or Muslim, called Moriscos, Marranos, and Conversos, lived among Christians. Some secretly followed their old religions. The Spanish Inquisition watched for anyone still following Islam or Judaism. Those found were punished and faced many restrictions.

Classifications and later consequences

The changing borders during the Reconquista created several new groups of people. The Muwallad were native Iberians who converted to Islam after Muslim rulers arrived. The Mozarabs were Christians living under Muslim rule; some moved north and brought new styles, foods, and farming methods while keeping their Christian beliefs.

There were also New Christians, Jews who converted to Christianity, called conversos or sometimes Marranos. Some secretly kept their Jewish practices. Later, all Jews were expelled from Spain. The Mudéjar were Muslims living under Christian rule, and Moriscos were Muslims who converted to Christianity but some still practiced Islam in secret. Eventually, many Moriscos were also expelled.

Legacy

See also: History of Spain, History of Portugal, and Portugal in the period of discoveries

For a long time, many people thought the Reconquista was a long fight where Christian kingdoms in Spain faced Muslim rulers. This idea became popular in the 1800s and showed Spain as a country shaped by fighting against Muslim influence. But today, many historians think eight centuries is too long for one continuous war.

Now, the idea of the Reconquista is sometimes used in politics to create strong feelings against Muslims. Festivals in Spain and Portugal named “Moors and Christians” celebrate this history with bright parades and fireworks. How land was taken during the Reconquista changed Spain’s economy for many years.

Later, these Christian kingdoms looked to other places, like North Africa. The discovery of new lands by Europeans, including Christopher Columbus’s trip to the Americas in 1492, happened after the last Muslim area in Spain was taken. Sadly, the story of the Reconquista is still sometimes used to support extreme political ideas.