Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe was a time when people began to see the world in new ways. Before this, many ideas about nature came from old Greek thinkers. Now, scientists started using experiments and math to learn about the universe. This helped create the science we know today.

This important time began around 1543 when two big books were printed. De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius changed how we learn about the human body. De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that Earth moves around the Sun instead of the other way around. Some people also say it started when a bright star, called the SN 1572 supernova, appeared in the sky.

The Scientific Revolution reached its peak in 1687 with the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. His book explained the laws of motion and gravity. It shaped how scientists think about physics even today. This revolution laid the groundwork for modern science and changed how we explore and understand everything around us.

Terminology and periodisation

The word "revolution" has been used to describe big changes in science since the 1700s. Famous thinkers like Alexis Clairaut, William Whewell, and Herbert Butterfield helped make this term popular. They used it to talk about how people started to rely more on what they could see and measure, instead of just trusting old ideas.

Many people think the Scientific Revolution started in 1543 when important books by Andreas Vesalius and Nicolaus Copernicus were printed. Some also believe it began in 1572 when Tycho Brahe saw a bright new star, or ended with Isaac Newton’s big work in 1687. This period marked the start of what we now call modern science.

Significance

The Scientific Revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries changed how people saw the world. It changed ideas in math, physics, astronomy, and biology, leading to the start of modern sciences. Important people like Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon helped find new ways to study nature. Their work led to groups like the Royal Society to help support science. Many think this time was one of the biggest changes in how humans understand the universe.

Ancient, medieval and Renaissance background

Medieval Translations

Main article: Latin translations of the 12th century

The Scientific Revolution began when old ideas from Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world were translated into Latin. This happened mostly in the 10th, 12th, and 13th centuries. These translations let scholars all over Europe share and discuss new ideas.

By the 16th century, many people in Europe followed the ideas of Aristotle. Aristotle thought Earth and the heavens were made of different materials. But even then, some people were starting to question these old ideas. This set the stage for big discoveries in science later on.

Christianity

Further information: Relationship between science and religion § Influence of a biblical worldview on early modern science

Many early scientists believed in God. They thought studying nature was a way to learn more about God's creation. They saw the order and beauty in the world as signs of a great Creator. This belief helped them observe nature closely and use math to explain what they saw.

Printing

Further information: Printing press § Circulation of information and ideas

The invention of the printing press in the 1440s by Johannes Gutenberg was very important for the Scientific Revolution. Before printing, books were rare and hard to share. Printing let scholars all over read the same books and diagrams. They could compare ideas and build on each other's work. This spread scientific knowledge more widely and made it more trustworthy.

Ptolemy Is Wrong

Further information: Waldseemüller map

When Europeans found the Americas in the late 15th century, it changed old maps and ideas. The ancient Greek writer Claudius Ptolemy had not included the Americas in his maps, which many people used at the time. This discovery showed that some old experts might not have all the answers, so explorers and scientists started looking for new evidence.

The first modern science: astronomy

For thousands of years, people thought the Earth was the center of the universe. This idea was called the geocentric model. It said Earth was special and different from space.

But during the Scientific Revolution, this changed. Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of our solar system. This idea was new and surprised many people. Later, astronomers like Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei made important discoveries. Kepler showed that planets move in oval shapes around the Sun. Galileo used a telescope to see moons around Jupiter and other interesting details in space. This helped prove that Earth was not the center of everything. Finally, Isaac Newton used math to explain how objects move, both on Earth and in space. This confirmed that the Sun-centered view was correct.

Scientific method

Main article: Scientific method

The scientific method changed how people studied the world in the 1600s. Instead of just reading books or thinking about ideas, scientists started doing experiments and watching what happened. They used math to understand what they saw and tried not to assume too much before testing. This new way of thinking was led by famous thinkers like René Descartes, Galileo, and Bacon.

By the end of this time, the way people understood the world changed from reading books to doing experiments and using math. Even though science grew more in the 1800s, the ideas from this time still shape how we study the world today.

Empiricism

Main article: Empiricism

Before the Scientific Revolution, people mostly learned by watching nature and thinking about it. During this time, the idea grew that scientists should trust more in evidence from experiments and observations. Important thinkers like William of Ockham, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume helped develop this idea.

John Locke wrote about how our minds start like a blank tablet, learning from what happens around us. His book An Essay Concerning Human Understanding explained that real knowledge comes from what we can see and experience.

Bacon's contributions

Francis Bacon helped start the Scientific Revolution. He supported a method called the Baconian method, which means planning experiments to learn about nature. Bacon believed that by understanding nature, people could gain power over it and improve their lives. He wrote about how inventions could change the world.

Scientific experimentation

Bacon was one of the first to describe the experimental method. He thought experiments should be planned carefully to test ideas. Galileo Galilei was another important person. He used experiments and math to understand how things move. Galileo showed that math was important for understanding the universe.

Mathematization

During this time, scientists started using math more to measure and understand the world. Galileo believed that math was certain and could help us understand the universe. François Viète and René Descartes improved algebra, and Newton developed calculus, which helped use math in science.

Mechanical philosophy

Before the Scientific Revolution, people often thought nature had purposes, like a plant growing to become a tree. During this time, scientists began to see nature more like machines, with things moving because of direct contact rather than purposes. Newton's ideas about gravity were sometimes seen as different, but they still changed how people thought about the world.

Institutionalization

The first scientific societies began forming during this time. The Royal Society of London was founded in 1660. It met to discuss new discoveries and do experiments. The society started publishing Philosophical Transactions in 1665, which is the world's oldest scientific journal. France also established the Academy of Sciences in 1666, founded by the government.

New ideas

Newton developed the theory of gravitation. He studied how gravity affects the paths of planets. Newton showed that planets move in oval paths because of a force that gets weaker with distance. He shared these ideas in a paper and later in a famous book.

In the 1600s, doctors made big steps in understanding the body. One doctor studied how the heart and blood vessels work. He showed that blood moves in a circle, not just back and forth.

Scientists also explored chemicals and materials. They tried to understand how different substances change and mix. One scientist said that all theories should be tested through experiments. He helped make chemistry a proper science.

Some scientists studied light and how we see. They learned about how light bends when it passes through different things.

Mechanical devices

Many useful tools were made during this time to help scientists learn more about the world.

Calculating devices

John Napier created logarithms, a clever way to make math easier and faster. Blaise Pascal made the first mechanical calculator called the Pascaline in 1642. This helped people do math by hand. Later, Gottfried Leibniz improved these ideas and made new tools for calculation.

Industrial machines

Denis Papin invented an early version of the steam engine called the steam digester. This idea was later used to power machines and move water from mines. Abraham Darby I found a better way to make iron using coke instead of charcoal. This helped build stronger tools and machines.

Telescopes

The first refracting telescopes were made in the Netherlands in 1608. Galileo used one to look at the stars and planets. Later, Isaac Newton built the first reflecting telescope in 1668. This used mirrors instead of lenses to see clearly.

Other devices

Scientists also made a vacuum pump to create empty spaces without air. This helped Robert Boyle and others learn about air and pressure. Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer in 1643 to measure air pressure using mercury.

Criticism

Historians still talk about whether the Scientific Revolution was a big change or just a continuation of older ideas. Some think there was no real revolution, just a natural step from the Renaissance. They believe the discoveries of that time were really just rediscoveries of ancient Greek thinking.

Others think the Scientific Revolution was influenced by ideas from non-Western cultures, including Arabic optics, Indian mathematics, and Chinese mechanical technologies. Recent studies also show that women often played important roles in science during this time, even though they were often left out of official records.