History of Anglo-Saxon England

Anglo-Saxon England covers the time from the end of the Roman Empire's rule in Britain in the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. During this time, new groups of people called the Anglo-Saxons came to live in Britain. They brought with them their own language, called Old English, and many new customs.

At first, England was made up of many small kingdoms, each ruled by different families. Some of the most important kingdoms were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex. In the 7th century, these kingdoms began to follow the Christian faith, influenced by missionaries from Ireland and other lands.

Later, Vikings from Scandinavia started raiding and settling in England. One king from Wessex, Æthelstan, managed to unite most of England under his rule in 927, becoming the first king of a single Kingdom of England. However, battles and changes in leadership continued until 1066, when William, the Duke of Normandy invaded and took control. This event marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, but their culture and identity helped shape what England would become.

Terminology

The term "Anglo-Saxons" is used by scholars today to describe the people who spoke Old English in Britain. This name helps avoid confusion, because words like "Saxons" or "Angles" could mean either all Old English speakers or just specific groups. Although the word "Anglo-Saxon" wasn’t used much until later times, it was sometimes used between the 8th and 10th centuries.

Before the 8th century, people often called the Old English speakers "Saxons." This word originally described raiders along the coasts of the North Sea and Gaul. By the 8th century, writers like Bede, Alcuin, and Saint Boniface started calling the group in Britain the "English" people. The term “English” became more common and showed a growing sense of unity among these groups.

End of Roman era and Anglo-Saxon origins

Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

The Anglo-Saxon period began in the 5th century AD, after the Romans left Britain. Before this, during the late 4th century, signs of economic trouble appeared in Britain and nearby areas like Gaul and Germania. By around 430 AD, big changes happened in how people lived, including new ways of building and dressing. These changes were partly due to people moving in from places near the North Sea, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark.

Even before the Romans left, German-speaking soldiers had been living in Britain. The term "Saxon" was used by Roman writers to describe raiders from northern areas. Over time, these groups became more common in Britain. Christianity had already started in Britain during Roman times and continued to grow, with help from Ireland. Important figures like Saint Patrick and Columba helped spread Christianity across the British Isles.

Rapid cultural change (400–550 AD)

Main article: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain

After the Romans left Britain around 410 AD, the country faced many changes. Local leaders tried to defend against attacks from groups like the Saxons, Picts, and Scoti. Over time, the old Roman way of life faded, and a new culture grew, influenced by people from northern Europe. This period saw the rise of new Anglo-Saxon communities, especially in eastern Britain, while the western areas kept their British traditions longer. The changes were complex, with mixtures of people and cultures shaping the new society that would become England.

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

The early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England began as small coastal and inland states during the 5th and 6th centuries. Over time, these kingdoms grew and merged, forming larger territories. Traditional history often speaks of seven main kingdoms, though the exact number changed frequently as rulers competed for power.

Important early kingdoms included East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria — which started as two smaller kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira — and Wessex. Smaller kingdoms such as Essex, Kent, and Sussex also existed. These kingdoms were founded by groups of invaders who arrived in small fleets and settled in various parts of Britain. Some historians refer to powerful rulers who dominated others as bretwalda, with Ælle of Sussex being one of the earliest mentioned.

"Heptarchy" and Christianisation (550-800 AD)

Ceawlin, a king of the Gewisse in the 6th century, expanded his kingdom, taking important places like Cirencester, Gloucester, and Bath. However, when fighting broke out among the Anglo-Saxons, he had to retreat.

King Æthelberht of Kent created one of the first written law codes in a Germanic language. In 595, Augustine arrived in Kent to begin spreading Christianity. He built a church in Canterbury, and King Æthelberht and many others were baptised.

Later, Aidan, an Irish monk, established a monastery on the Isle of Lindisfarne and helped spread Christianity in northern England. In 664, a meeting at Whitby Abbey decided that the Roman Christian practices would be used instead of Irish ones.

The kingdom of Mercia grew powerful under Offa of Mercia, who built Offa's Dyke, a long earthwork that marked the border with Wales.

Ascendency of Wessex and the Vikings (9th century)

Main articles: Danelaw, Viking Age, and Alfred the Great

In the 9th century, the kingdom of Wessex grew powerful. In 825, King Egbert of Wessex defeated the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun, marking the end of Mercian dominance. Egbert later conquered much of southern England, earning the title of "Bretwalda" or overlord.

During this time, Viking raiders from Denmark and Norway began attacking England. These raids started in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne and became more frequent over the years. In 865, a large Viking army, called the Great Heathen Army, invaded England. They captured many kingdoms, but Wessex, under King Alfred the Great, managed to survive. In 878, Alfred’s forces defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington. The Vikings then agreed to withdraw from Wessex and set up their own area called the Danelaw. Alfred built fortified towns called burhs to protect his kingdom and created a strong army and navy. These defenses helped Wessex survive further Viking attacks.

English unification (10th century)

In the 10th century, English kings worked to bring different regions together under one rule. After King Æthelred died in 911, his daughter Æthelflæd helped her brother Edward take back areas controlled by Vikings. Edward and his successors built fortified towns, which helped them push back against Viking forces. By the time Edward died in 924, he ruled most of England south of the Humber River. His son Æthelstan went on to become the first king of all England after taking control of Northumbria in 927.

During this time, the kings of West Saxony gradually brought Mercia, parts of Denmark-controlled areas, and Northumbria under their rule. This created a more unified England, although people still remembered their own local traditions. Kings like Edmund and Eadred faced challenges in controlling the north, but by the time Edgar became king in 959, he was recognised by other British kings. The mixing of Danish and Anglo-Saxon cultures left a lasting influence, with many English words and place names coming from Old Norse.

England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest (978–1066)

Edgar died in 975, leaving his throne to his elder half-brother Edward, who was only about 12 years old. Edward’s reign was troubled, and he was assassinated in 978. His younger brother Æthelred then became king. Æthelred faced many challenges, including attacks from Viking raiders. He tried to protect England by paying the Vikings money to leave, but this often only encouraged more attacks.

In 1013, a Danish king named Sven Forkbeard invaded England, forcing Æthelred to flee. After Sven’s death, Æthelred returned, but soon after, his son Edmund fought against another Danish leader, Cnut. They eventually split England between them, but Edmund died shortly after, leaving Cnut as the sole ruler. Cnut ruled England and also controlled Denmark and Norway.

After Cnut’s death, the throne was disputed between his sons. Eventually, Edward the Confessor became king in 1042 with support from powerful families. When Edward died in 1066, Harold Godwinson was declared king. However, William, Duke of Normandy, and Harald Hardrada of Norway also claimed the throne. Harold defeated Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge but then marched south to face William. Unfortunately for Harold, he was defeated at the Battle of Hastings, and William became the new king of England.