Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology (traditional Chinese: 中國神話; simplified Chinese: 中国神话; pinyin: Zhōngguó shénhuà) is mythology that has been told through stories and writings across the land now known as Greater China. These stories are filled with amazing characters and magical beings who live in wonderful worlds or ancient times. Like myths from other places, Chinese mythology has sometimes been seen as a way of explaining the past.

Chinese mythology is closely linked with Chinese folklore, Chinese folk religion, and religious Taoism. Many of these stories talk about how the world began, who the gods are, and how people first learned important skills. Some myths even explain how the Chinese people and their rulers came to be. These tales often feature culture heroes who taught people how to build homes, cook food, and even write.

Two important ideas in Chinese mythology are li and qi. These ideas shape how people interact with each other through rituals, dances, and ceremonies. Chinese myths help explain the world and teach valuable lessons about life and tradition.

Classification

Chinese mythology is filled with fascinating stories about amazing events and characters. Some of the well-known ancient myths include tales like Pangu creating the world, Nuwa fixing the sky, and Dayu controlling a big flood.

There are also many folk myths and legends, such as The Legend of the White Snake, Chang'e flying to the Moon, and The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl. Literary myths include popular stories like Nezha and the adventure in Journey to the West.

Mythology and religion

Further information: Religion in China and Chinese folk religion

Chinese mythology is closely connected to important philosophies and religions like Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Many ancient myths, such as those found in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, were included in these belief systems as they grew. For instance, Taoist ideas about a spiritual paradise became part of myths about where immortals and gods live. These myths and beliefs have spread widely across China, sometimes being special to certain groups like the Qiang people. Myths were also used by rulers to show that their power came from divine sources.

Mythology and philosophy

Further information: Chinese philosophy

Chinese mythology and philosophy often influenced each other in interesting ways. During the time of the Warring States, many different ideas about life and the world grew and changed. Some thinkers focused on personal freedom and change, like ideas found in stories of magic animals and symbols. Others believed in strong rules and stable governments, often tied to myths about powerful leaders and important traditions. These different views helped shape Chinese culture and stories for many years.

Mythology and ritual

Mythology is closely connected to rituals in society and culture. Many rituals can be understood through myths. For example, the burning of special paper money called mortuary banknotes and lighting fireworks are explained by mythology.

A clear example of this link is the Yubu, or Steps of Yu. According to the story, Yu worked so hard fighting the Great Flood that he became very tired and developed a limp. Today, some Daoist practitioners use special walking patterns in their rituals, connecting the ancient myth of Yu with modern practices.

Cosmology

Further information: Chinese mythological geography

Chinese mythology includes many ideas about the earth, the universe, and how they relate to each other. One common view is that the earth is square and the sky is round, separated by pillars such as mountains or trees. Above the sky is Heaven, a vast place often ruled by a supreme emperor and filled with many inhabitants living in palaces and bureaucracy, much like the government on earth. Below the earth lies an underground world called Diyu or the Yellow Springs, where the souls of the departed are judged based on their lives. This place also has its own government and rulers.

Mythology describes many special places, including a heavenly realm above the earth and an underground world below. The heavenly realm, called Tian, is sometimes ruled by a supreme deity like the Jade Emperor. It includes features like the sun, stars, and the Milky Way, which is also called the River of Heaven. Travel between Heaven and Earth was often done by flying or climbing, such as crossing the Queqiao bridge formed by birds. The underground world, Diyu, is where souls are judged and may face punishment or be reborn. Mythological places also include special mountains, rivers, and islands, such as Mount Penglai, a paradise in the sea, and Kunlun, a western mountain home to deities and magical plants.

Mythological and semi-mythological chronology

Chinese mythology tells stories about how the world began, how humans first appeared, and important events like big floods. These stories often talk about early leaders and rulers. Over time, people changed these myths to teach lessons or make them easier to understand.

There are also myths about time and the calendar. One famous example is the twelve zodiac animals—Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig—each representing a year in a twelve-year cycle. These stories help explain how ancient people thought about tracking time.

Main article: Chinese zodiac

Creation myths

Main article: Chinese creation myths

Chinese mythology includes many stories about how the world began. These stories explain how the universe, the earth, and even people came to exist. They often talk about powerful gods and magical beings who played a part in creating everything.

One well-known story is about Pangu. According to this tale, Pangu was one of the first beings who helped shape the heavens and the earth. The story was written down by a Taoist writer named Xu Zheng around the year 200 CE.

Age of heroes

Various culture heroes helped or saved humanity in many ways, such as stopping floods and teaching the use of fire. These heroes were sometimes seen as deities and other times as heroic humans, often with little distinction made between the two. Examples of early culture heroes include Youchao, who taught people how to make wooden shelters, and Suiren, who taught people the use of fire and cooking. Another example is Leizu, who is credited with the invention of sericulture, the production of silk.

The mythological history of people begins with groups of emperors, such as the Three Primeval Emperors followed by the Five Premier Emperors. After them came the Three Dynasties: the Xia dynasty, Shang dynasty, and Zhou dynasty. These dynasties blend myth and history, with much mythology surrounding their origins and rulers. Important figures include the Yellow Emperor, Houji, and Chiyou, each playing significant roles in shaping early Chinese culture and society.

Important deities, spirits, and mythological people

Chinese mythology is filled with fascinating stories about deities, spirits, and mythological people. These characters come from many different traditions and cultures across China. Some of these beings are clearly divine, like the Jade Emperor, who oversees the three realms of heaven, earth, and the underworld. Others, like immortals known as xian, achieve their status through special practices or rituals.

Major deities

One important figure is Shangdi, an early sky god from the Shang dynasty. Later, he became known as Huángtiān Shàngdì. Another key figure is the Jade Emperor, who manages rewards and justice for people and spirits. Nüwa is a mother goddess who helped create humans and fix the Pillars of Heaven. Her brother and husband, Fuxi, worked with her to create humanity and is linked to the ancient I Ching.

Daoism and Chinese mythology

Over time, many folk beliefs blended into Daoism, a major Chinese religion and philosophy. Important Daoist figures include Laozi, the legendary founder, and the Jade Emperor. Daoist myths often feature magic, spells, and special elixirs.

Buddhist influences

Buddhism also added new gods and spirits to Chinese mythology, such as Guanyin, the goddess of mercy, and Dizang, a monk who helps people in the afterlife. The Four Heavenly Kings protect Buddhist temples, and the cheerful Laughing Buddha is a popular figure.

Confucian influence

Confucius, a wise teacher from ancient times, became an important figure in Chinese mythology. His ideas about family and tradition deeply influenced Chinese culture.

Afterlife and family

Many Chinese myths explain what happens after people die. These stories often involve ancestor veneration, special festivals, and beliefs about ghosts and spirits. For example, the Qingming Festival is a time when families honor their ancestors.

Weather deities

Some gods and spirits control weather and natural forces. Lei Gong is the god of thunder, and dragons often bring rain. Ba, a goddess, can create droughts to balance nature.

Astronomical deities

Myths also feature gods linked to the sun, moon, and stars. Xihe is the goddess of the sun, and Chang'e lives on the moon after drinking an elixir of immortality. Every full moon, people celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival in her honor.

Deities of places

Many gods and spirits are tied to specific locations. Mazu protects sailors and sea travelers, while the Xiang River goddesses are linked to a river in ancient China.

Household deities and spirits

Chinese families often honor special spirits who watch over them. The Kitchen God reports on the family to higher powers, and other spirits guard doors and homes.

Occupational tutelaries

Some gods help people with specific jobs. Kui Xing and Wenchang Wang are linked to scholars and success in studies.

Life and social association

There are also gods connected to health, motherhood, and even aspects of human relationships. Sun Simiao is a medicine god, and Bixia is associated with fertility.

Mythological creatures

Further information: Category:Chinese legendary creatures and Animal worship

Chinese mythology is full of fascinating creatures, both divine and non-divine. Humans were thought to be ruled by the Emperor, winged creatures by the phoenix, and scaly or finned creatures by the dragon. These myths often feature extraordinary beings with magical powers, inhabiting imaginative realms or historical times.

The Four Symbols

The Four Symbols were four intelligent animals, each representing a class of animals. They are the Azure Dragon of the East, the Vermilion Bird of the South, the White Tiger of the West, and the Black Tortoise of the North.

Dragons, dragon-like and related creatures

Main articles: Chinese dragon and Dragon King

The Chinese dragon is a powerful mythical creature, controller of all waters and creator of clouds. Dragons symbolize great power and support heroes and gods. Famous dragons include Yinglong, the god of rain, and Shenlong, a master of storms. Dragons often chase a mystical pearl and appear in many stories and art forms.

Fish and fish-like

Main article: Fish in Chinese mythology

Myths also feature fish and fish-like beings, such as part-human, part-sea creatures similar to mermaids. Carp that leap over the dragon gate fall of the Yellow River were believed to transform into dragons, symbolizing a scholar's success in the Imperial examination system.

Snakelike and reptilian

Further information: Chinese dragon and Snakes in Chinese mythology

Snakes and reptilians appear in many Chinese myths. These include the giant marine turtle or tortoise Ao, the Bashe snake reputed to swallow elephants, and the White Serpent from the novel Legend of the White Snake. Some immortal beings, called xian, were thought to have reptile and birdlike features.

Birds

Main article: Birds in Chinese mythology

Further information: Category:Birds in Chinese mythology, Geese in poetry, Category:Legendary birds, and Category:Birds in mythology

Birds in Chinese mythology range from real birds with mythical enhancements to purely imaginary ones. The Crane is linked with immortality and may transform into an immortal or carry one. The Vermilion Bird represents the south and is associated with fire. Other birds include the Peng, a gigantic bird phase of the Kun fish, and the Jingwei, a bird that tries to fill the ocean with twigs and pebbles.

Mythological humanoid

Further information: List of supernatural beings in Chinese folklore

Mythological humanoids include former humans, part-human beings, and human-like creatures. Examples include Kui, a one-legged mountain demon who invented music and dance, and xian, immortal humanoid beings with various depictions.

Mythological mammals

Further information: Dog in Chinese mythology, Bovidae in Chinese mythology, Horse in Chinese mythology, and List of Chinese terrestrial ungulates

Mythological mammals in Chinese stories include animals from the Chinese zodiac, such as the zodiacal dog, zodiacal ox, and zodiacal horse. Fox spirits, known as Huli jing, are prominent, including the nine-tailed fox. Other mammals include oxen, sheep, goats, and various types of unicorns like the Qilin. Cats such as Pixiu and Rui Shi also appear in myths.

Four Fiends

The Four Fiends represent different vices:

• Hundun: chaos
• Taotie: gluttony
• Táowù (梼杌): ignorance
• Qióngqí (窮奇): deviousness

Miscellaneous or other

• Nian: a creature that lives under the sea or in mountains and is said to attack children
• Luduan: a creature that can detect the truth
• Xiezhi: a creature of justice that can distinguish lies from truths
• Bai Ze: a legendary creature said to have given the Yellow Emperor a compendium listing all the demons in the world

Mythological plants

Chinese mythology includes many magical plants that grow in special places, like Heaven or hidden corners of the Earth. Some famous examples are the Fusang world tree where the sun lives, the Lingzhi mushrooms that grant immortality, the Peaches of Immortality, and the magical Yao Grass. There are also beautiful plants made of jasper and jade that grow in the gardens of these wonderful paradises.

Mythological objects

Further information: Eight Treasures and Weapons and armor in Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology includes many magical objects such as special gems, pearls, and powerful weapons. One famous object is the wish-fulfilling jewel, which could grant any desire, and there are also shiny gemstones that glow in the dark. Another well-known item is the Marquis of Sui's pearl, a special pearl linked to dragons. There is also a set of nine cauldrons called the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, which were believed to give a ruler the right to lead China.

Weapons also play a big role in these stories. For example, the hero Yi used a magical bow and arrows given to him by the god Di Jun to shoot down extra suns in the sky. Other famous weapons include Guanyu's Green Dragon Crescent Blade, Xingtian's shield and battleaxe, and many weapons used by the warrior Chiyou.

Major sources

Chinese mythology comes from many different places, like stories told by people, plays, and books. We can also learn about these myths from old objects such as special bronze items, paintings, and old buildings. The oldest written myths are tiny marks on bones and shells used for telling the future, called oracle bones, from a very old time called the Shang dynasty.

Ancient bronze objects, especially from a time called the Zhou dynasty, sometimes have short stories or hints about myths. These were often thought to be magic and sometimes had words written in hard-to-reach places, like inside a pot, because people believed gods could read them.

Many myths are found in old books and poems. Some of the earliest books come from the Zhou dynasty. Later books, like those from the Han dynasty, also share myths. During the Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties, myths grew into stories we still know today. Some myths were turned into famous books and stories, like Journey to the West, which includes a journey with monsters and magic. Other stories, like Madame White Snake, mix myths with romance and adventure.

Comparative mythology

Main article: Comparative mythology

The study of Chinese mythology often involves comparative mythology, where myths from different cultures are compared to find common themes and ideas. Important thinkers like Georges Dumézil and James Frazer helped shape this field, offering useful ways to understand Chinese myths.

Many ancient Chinese myths, passed down through families and communities, lasted for centuries. These stories became part of larger belief systems, such as Chinese Manichaeism.

In popular culture

Main category: Chinese mythology in popular culture

Chinese mythology has inspired many TV shows, movies, and video games over thousands of years. Even today, it influences modern technology. For example, China’s lunar explorer Chang'e 4 was named after Chang'e, the moon goddess. It made history by landing on the far side of the Moon in January 2019. Another spacecraft, Queqiao, was named after the bridge in the sky formed by magpies, connecting lovers in the stars.