Crucifixion

Crucifixion is a very old way that people were punished and killed. In this method, a person was tied or nailed to a big wooden cross or stake and left there until they died. This could take from just a few minutes to several days. Some ancient groups, like the Achaemenids, Carthaginians, and Romans, used crucifixion as a punishment. Sadly, some countries still used this method in the 21st century.

One of the most well-known examples of crucifixion is the story of Jesus. His crucifixion is very important in Christianity, and the cross is the main symbol of the religion. Because of this, many people around the world think of Jesus and Christian beliefs when they hear about crucifixion. Other Christian figures, like Saint Peter and Saint Andrew, are also said to have been crucified in history.

Even today, a very small number of Christians choose to undergo symbolic, non-harming crucifixions as a way to show their strong faith and devotion. This practice is meant to honor the memory of Jesus and their religious beliefs.

Terminology

The ancient Greeks had different words for crucifixion, such as anastauroo and apotumpanizo. These words described the act of tying or nailing someone to a wooden stake or beam. In the Christian New Testament, several Greek verbs were used to describe crucifixion, with stauroo being the most common term.

The English word "cross" comes from the Latin word crux, which originally meant any wooden structure used for execution. Over time, it came to specifically mean the cross shape we recognize today. The word "crucifix" also comes from Latin, meaning "to fasten to a cross."

Detail

In the Roman Empire, crucifixion was a harsh form of punishment. The cross used could take many shapes, sometimes with a simple vertical stake or with a cross-piece added to form a T-shape or another form. Ancient writings describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched.

Historians have studied how people might have died during crucifixion. The time it took could vary from hours to days, depending on many factors. Some scholars believe that pain and exhaustion were key reasons people died, while others think it could have been due to health issues like heart problems or loss of fluids. Infections from wounds were also a common cause of death.

In rare cases, people survived crucifixion. For example, the ancient writer Josephus told a story about three friends who were taken down from their crosses before they died, though two sadly did not survive medical care afterward.

History

The earliest references to crucifixion appear in ancient texts. Some writers have interpreted passages in the Book of Deuteronomy as allusions to this practice, which involved hanging the body of an executed person on a tree.

Crucifixion was used by various ancient cultures, including the Persians, Athenians, and Carthaginians. For example, the historian Herodotus described how a Persian general was executed by the Athenians around 479 BCE by nailing him to a plank and hanging him up. Later, Alexander the Great crucified thousands after capturing the city of Tyre in 332 BCE.

In Ancient Rome, crucifixion was a common and severe form of execution. It was used to punish slaves, pirates, and enemies of the state. Victims were often left on display for days as a warning to others. The Roman emperor Constantine the Great eventually abolished crucifixion in 337 CE out of respect for Jesus Christ.

Crucifixion continued to be used in other parts of the world, including in Islam, where it was prescribed for certain crimes, and in Japan, where it was introduced during the Sengoku period and used against prisoners of war during World War II.

Archaeological evidence

Further information: Jehohanan

Historians have written about many crucifixions, but archaeologists have found very few physical remains. One important discovery was made in 1968 in Jerusalem at Givat HaMivtar. Workers found a box called an ossuary with a person’s name on it: “Jehohanan, the son of Hagakol.” Inside, scientists found a heel bone with a nail through it. This shows Jehohanan was crucified. The nail had bits of olive wood on it, meaning his cross was made from an olive tree.

Researchers also found a piece of acacia wood between Jehohanan’s bones and the nail. This likely helped keep him from escaping. Scientists later debated some of these findings, but this discovery remains a key piece of evidence about how crucifixion was carried out in history. More recent discoveries in Italy and the United Kingdom have added to our understanding of this ancient practice.

Modern use

Crucifixion has been reported in several modern contexts. During World War I, there were rumors that German soldiers crucified a Canadian soldier, but investigations found no evidence to support this claim.

In some cases, crucifixion has been used as a punishment or execution method in certain countries. For example, it is still used rarely in Saudi Arabia as part of Islamic law. Individuals have sometimes been executed by other methods first, with their bodies then displayed in a crucified position.

Unfortunately, there have also been reports of crucifixions used as acts of violence by armed groups. These acts were committed against civilians in various conflicts, showing how this ancient practice has occasionally resurfaced in modern times.

In culture and arts

The idea of crucifixion has inspired many artists and cultural works over the centuries. Painters like Jan Van Eyck and Diego Velázquez created famous artworks showing this theme. Sculptures, postcards, and even modern protests have also referenced crucifixion, showing its lasting impact on our culture. For example, a protester in Washington D.C. in 1970 tied themselves to a cross to make a statement, and a sculpture in the United Kingdom in 2007 paid tribute to the artist Piet Mondrian.

As a devotional practice

In some religious traditions, people simulate crucifixion as part of special ceremonies. For example, in the town of Iztapalapa near Mexico City, people have performed re-enactments of Jesus's crucifixion every year since 1833. In New Mexico, a group called the Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light") also holds yearly re-enactments during Holy Week. In these events, participants are tied to crosses but are not nailed to them.

In the Philippines, some Catholics choose to be tied to crosses and have their hands pierced with pre-sterilized nails during Good Friday as a way to show devotion. The Filipino Catholic Church and health officials have asked people not to do this, but the practice continues. Participants are given medical advice to stay safe.

Notable crucifixions

This section includes stories from religious texts and other traditions that tell events in different ways.

The rebellious slaves who waged the Third Servile War: Between 73 and 71 BCE, a large group of slaves, led by Spartacus, fought against the Roman republic. After the rebellion was stopped, many of Spartacus's followers were crucified along the Appian Way as a warning.
Jehohanan: a Jewish man who was crucified around the same time as Jesus.
Jesus: His death by crucifixion under Pontius Pilate (c. 30 or 33 CE), is a key event told in the four 1st-century canonical Gospels.
Saint Peter: a Christian apostle, who, according to tradition, was crucified upside-down at his own request.
Saint Andrew: a Christian apostle and Saint Peter's brother, who is traditionally believed to have been crucified on an X-shaped cross.
Simeon of Jerusalem: second Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified in either 106 or 107 CE.
Mani: the founder of Manicheanism, depicted by followers as having died by crucifixion in 274 CE.
The 26 Martyrs of Japan were crucified and impaled with spears.