Crusades

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns launched by the papacy between 1095 and 1291. They were fought by Western Christians against Muslim rulers to reclaim the Holy Land, especially the city of Jerusalem. The Crusades began when Pope Urban II called for Christians to take up arms to retake Jerusalem from Muslim control during the Council of Clermont in 1095. This call for war was supported by promises of spiritual rewards for those who participated.

14th-century miniature of the Battle of Dorylaeum (1147), a Second Crusade battle, from the Estoire d'Eracles

These wars had a big impact on Europe and the Middle East. They led to the creation of several small Christian states in the Levant, which needed constant protection. Over time, the idea of crusading expanded beyond the Holy Land to include fights against other groups, like pagans and Christian dissidents. Though many of these campaigns were successful at first, they eventually failed to keep control of the Holy Land, especially after strong Muslim leaders like Saladin pushed back against the Crusaders.

The Crusades changed the world in many ways. They increased connections between Europe and the Middle East, brought new ideas and goods to Europe, and had lasting effects on the Catholic Church and European societies. Even though they didn’t achieve all their goals, the Crusades remain one of the most important events in medieval history.

Terminology

Crosses carved by pilgrims into the wall of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

The Crusades were military campaigns by Western Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were started by the papacy and offered spiritual rewards to those who joined. Sometimes, enthusiastic people started their own unofficial campaigns, known as popular crusades.

Early names for these campaigns focused on travel, like "journey" or "expedition," often mentioning their goal, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Over time, the word "cross" became important, leading to names like "crusade." People who joined would sew a cross onto their clothes. The word "crusade" we use today was fixed by the year 1706.

Background

Further information: Early Middle Ages

Detail of an 11th-century mural depicting a scene of the Last Judgement in the Abbey of Sant'Angelo in Formis, Italy

Sites linked to Jesus's ministry became popular places for Christian travelers to visit in Roman Palestine. Emperors built churches there, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, to mark important events in Jesus's life.

Over time, the Roman Empire split into two parts. The western part broke apart into smaller kingdoms, while the eastern part, known as the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, continued but lost land to expanding Muslim rulers. By the 11th century, Western Europe saw changes like warmer weather helping growth, and Italian traders becoming more important in Mediterranean trade.

First Crusade

Main article: First Crusade

Miniature of Peter the Hermit leading the People's Crusade (from a 14th-century manuscript of the Abreujamen de las estorias)

The First Crusade was a big journey taken by many Christians from Europe to the Holy Land. It started in 1095 when Pope Urban II asked people to help protect the Holy Land from Muslim rulers. He said that anyone who joined would get special rewards from God. Many people, both rich and poor, decided to join this journey.

The trip was very difficult. Some groups got lost or faced danger along the way. The main group of crusaders, led by important nobles, finally reached Jerusalem in 1099 after many battles. They worked together to take the city back, and then returned home, leaving a small group to guard the city.

Conquest, consolidation and defence

After the First Crusade, the Crusader states were created, which committed Europeans to continued crusading efforts for many years. The growth of Muslim unity in the Middle East shaped the region's history during this time. In the first half of the 12th century, the Franks asked for military help from the West only four times, but between 1149 and 1186, they made at least sixteen such requests.

Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned as the first king of Jerusalem (a miniature from the late 13th-century Histoire d'Outremer).

The Italian merchant cities promised ships to help with the crusade but needed time to prepare. The fleet from Pisan arrived in 1099 under Archbishop Daimbert. Meanwhile, Tancred finished taking control of Galilee. After the death of one leader, another was invited to take charge, and he later captured more lands along the coast with help from Genoese ships.

Later, a new crusade was started in 1101, called the "Crusade of the Faint-Hearted." Many who had previously promised to join but didn’t took part this time. They faced tough battles and losses in Anatolia. Some made it to the Holy Land, but the campaign did not go well overall.

Efforts continued to strengthen the Crusader states and defend them against Muslim forces. Leaders worked to gain more support from Europe and built alliances to protect their territories.

Fall and recovery

Main article: Third Crusade

After the failure of the Second Crusade, Western rulers were unwilling to launch another expedition to the Holy Land. Criticism of the crusading efforts grew, and only a major defeat in the East revived the spirit for more campaigns. The Byzantine Empire faced instability, and conflicts with Italian merchants deepened its isolation. In 1185, Emperor Isaac II Angelos formed an alliance with Saladin, recognizing his control over Syria except for Antioch.

Muslim warriors seize the True Cross at the Battle of Hattin (from a manuscript of Matthew of Paris's Chronica maiora)

The Third Crusade began after Raynald of Châtillon attacked a Muslim caravan, leading Saladin to gather forces. The army of Jerusalem was defeated at the Battle of Hattin, and Jerusalem fell to Saladin after a short siege. However, Tyre held out under Conrad of Montferrat. Pope Gregory VIII called for a new crusade, and leaders like Richard I of England and Philip II of France prepared to respond. Frederick I of Germany also joined but drowned during the journey. The crusaders recaptured Acre after a long siege and advanced towards Jerusalem, but ultimately secured a truce with Saladin, allowing Christian pilgrims access to holy sites.

Main article: Crusade of 1197

Saladin's death led to instability in his empire. Emperor Henry VI planned a new crusade but died before it could begin. German forces sailed to the Holy Land but abandoned their campaign after Henry's death. During this time, Aimery of Cyprus and Leo I of Cilician Armenia were crowned kings, and the Teutonic Knights formed as a new military order.

Map of the Third Crusade

Main articles: Fourth Crusade and Sack of Constantinople

Pope Innocent III proclaimed a new crusade, but conflicts in Europe delayed large-scale efforts. The crusade eventually diverted to attack the Christian city of Zara, then continued to Constantinople. The crusaders captured the city, leading to widespread destruction and the division of the Byzantine Empire among the crusaders. This event weakened the Christian efforts in the Holy Land and led to long-term divisions in Europe.

Main article: Fifth Crusade

Richard the Lionheart during the siege of Acre, as depicted by Philip James de Loutherbourg (1807)

Pope Innocent III planned another crusade focused on the Holy Land, citing a new Muslim fort as a reason. The crusade gathered forces from Hungary, Austria, and other regions. They advanced on the Egyptian port of Damietta but faced difficulties. After capturing Damietta, the crusaders advanced towards Cairo but were forced to retreat due to flooding. They surrendered Damietta in exchange for a truce, marking a disappointing end to the campaign.

Main article: Sixth Crusade

Emperor Frederick II eventually led a crusade after previous delays. He negotiated with the Muslim leader al-Kamil and, through diplomacy, regained control of Jerusalem without a major battle. Although criticized for his methods, Frederick's efforts resulted in a significant recovery of Christian-controlled lands.

Main article: Barons' Crusade

After Frederick II's return, various crusading efforts continued. In Iberia, Christian forces expanded their control, and in the Baltic, the Teutonic Knights fought against pagan tribes. Pope Gregory IX called for a new crusade to the Holy Land, but internal divisions and external threats complicated these efforts. Some crusaders arrived in the Holy Land, but the campaign ended without major successes, though some territorial gains were made through negotiations.

Fall of the Crusader states

The final phase of the Crusades in the Holy Land saw changes in leadership and new threats from Muslim rulers and the Mongols. Earlier, the Mongols had moved into areas like Hungary and Poland, but their leader died, and they left. This change gave Muslim leaders a chance to unite against the Crusaders.

The Crusaders faced many challenges from new leaders in Egypt and Syria. In one battle, a large group of Crusaders was defeated, making the remaining Crusader towns much weaker. Later, a French king, Louis IX, decided to lead a new crusade to help. He gathered an army and set sail for the Holy Land. However, his forces faced difficulties, including diseases and battles against the Muslim defenders. After several years of struggle, Louis was forced to leave the area.

As time passed, new leaders in Egypt, called the Mamluks, took control. They were very determined to remove the Crusaders from the Holy Land. They attacked many Crusader towns and forts over the years. Eventually, the last major Crusader town, Acre, was captured, marking the end of the Crusader states in the Holy Land.

Aftermath

The loss of the Holy Land disappointed many Christians in Europe. Leaders like Pope Nicholas IV tried to organize new crusades, but other wars, like the Gascon War, stopped these plans. Some writers suggested new ways to fight back, while others called for big new crusades.

Crusades began to be used for political purposes. Pope Boniface VIII even called crusades against his own enemies. Later, the Templar Knights were arrested and their group dissolved. Though some still wanted to fight for the Holy Land, new wars like the Hundred Years' War prevented these plans. In 1365, a group of crusaders attacked the Egyptian city of Alexandria but left after a week.

Crusading continued in other places. In 1396, a large army was defeated while fighting the Ottoman Empire. In Spain, the last Muslim state fell in 1492. In the Baltic Sea area, knights fought against people who did not follow Christianity until the 1400s. Later, some Catholic countries formed groups to fight against the Ottoman Empire.

Legacy

The Crusades left a lasting impact, creating stories of brave heroes and changing place names. Today, some people use ideas from the Crusades to talk about current events. For example, some modern Muslim leaders compare current political issues to the Crusades. In other parts of the world, some groups use symbols from the Crusades to talk about their beliefs regarding religious conflicts.

Historiography

Main article: Historiography of the Crusades

The study of the Crusades looks at how people have written about these events over time. There are three main types of sources. The first type includes writings from the time of the Crusades, such as letters and chronicles by people who were there. The second type started in the 1500s and includes books written later that use those early sources. The third type includes reference books like encyclopedias that gather information about the Crusades.

Primary sources for the Crusades come from many writers, including people who lived during the time. For example, the First Crusade was described in Latin by writers like William of Tyre. Other important works include accounts from both Christian and Muslim writers, offering different views of the same events. These sources help historians understand what happened during the Crusades.