Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador, military commander, explorer, and writer who lived from around 1485 until 1547. He is best known for leading an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. His actions brought large parts of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile.

Born in Medellín, Spain, Cortés came from a family of lesser nobility. He chose to seek adventure and riches in the New World, first going to Hispaniola and later to Cuba. In 1519, he was chosen to lead an expedition to the mainland of Mexico, which he partly funded himself.

Cortés used smart strategies, such as forming alliances with some indigenous people against others. He also had the help of Doña Marina, a native woman who served as his interpreter. After overcoming challenges, including orders to return to Cuba, Cortés eventually overthrew the powerful Aztec Empire. For his successes, he was later awarded the title of marqués del Valle de Oaxaca. He returned to Spain in 1541 and died there six years later of natural causes.

Name

Hernán Cortés always called himself Hernando Cortés in his writings. For a long time, people spelled his first name as "Hernando" or "Fernando". A famous book from 1843 by William H. Prescott called him Hernando Cortés. But in the 20th century, the name changed to the shorter form, "Hernán". Today, most books and encyclopedias use "Hernán".

Physical appearance

There are a few known portraits of Hernán Cortés from his later years, though only copies survive. One detailed description of his appearance comes from Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who described Cortés as well-built and stocky, with a somewhat serious gray face, black sparse beard and hair, and a lean body with a high chest and well-shaped back.

Early life

Hernán Cortés was born around 1485 in the town of Medellín in Extremadura, part of the Kingdom of Castile. His father, Martín Cortés, was a nobleman with limited wealth, and his mother was Catalína Pizarro. Through his mother, Cortés was a distant relative of Francisco Pizzaro, who later conquered the Inca Empire.

As a young boy, Cortés was pale and often sick. He studied Latin in Salamanca for two years and later worked as a notary in Hispaniola. During this time, he learned the laws of Castile, which later helped him during his adventures. By his teens, he felt restless in his small town and was eager to explore new places after hearing about Christopher Columbus’s discoveries in the New World.

Early career in the New World

Hernán Cortés planned to sail to the Americas with a relative, Nicolás de Ovando, the Governor of Hispaniola. However, an injury prevented him from traveling at first. After spending time in southern Spain, he finally reached Hispaniola in 1504. There, he became a citizen of Santo Domingo, farmed land, and took part in the conquests of Hispaniola and Cuba.

In 1511, Cortés joined an expedition to conquer Cuba led by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar. Velázquez later became the Governor of Cuba and appointed Cortés to important roles, including as secretary and municipal magistrate of Santiago. Over time, Cortés gained wealth and influence, owning land and managing workers. Eventually, he was chosen to lead an expedition to Mexico, setting the stage for his famous conquest of the Aztec Empire.

Conquest of Aztec Empire (1519–1521)

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

In 1518, Hernán Cortés was placed in charge of an expedition to explore and claim parts of Mexico for Spain. Despite orders to stop, Cortés ignored them and set sail in 1519 with about 500 men. He landed on the Yucatán Peninsula and met Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish priest who could translate between Spanish and local languages.

Cortés moved toward the heart of the Aztec Empire. Along the way, he formed alliances with local groups who were unhappy with Aztec rule. In November 1519, he entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, where he was welcomed by the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II. However, tensions grew, and Cortés took Moctezuma under his control.

Later, Cortés faced new Spanish forces sent to stop him, but he convinced most of them to join his group. During a celebration in Tenochtitlán, a massacre occurred, leading to anger from the Aztecs. Cortés and his men were forced to flee the city. After regrouping and gathering more allies, Cortés returned and began a long siege of Tenochtitlán. The city finally fell in 1521, ending the Aztec Empire and making Cortés a key figure in Spain’s control of Mexico.

Appointment to the governorship of New Spain and internal dissensions

Hernán Cortés was appointed by King Charles as governor, captain general, and chief justice of the newly conquered territory called New Spain. However, four royal officials were also appointed to assist him, which Cortés did not like. Despite this, Cortés began building what would become Mexico City, using the ruins of Aztec buildings as a foundation.

He organized the founding of new cities and extended Spanish rule across New Spain. Cortés also introduced the encomienda system in 1524, granting land and control to himself and his followers. This system upset others who arrived later and felt left out. Additionally, Cortés faced challenges when another military force, led by Francisco de Garay, was sent to settle northern Mexico. Cortés appealed to the king, who stopped Garay’s efforts, supporting Cortés instead.

Royal grant of arms (1525)

Hernán Cortés received a special coat of arms from the Spanish king as a reward for his successful conquest of Mexico. This coat of arms was a symbol of honor for Cortés and his family.

The coat of arms had a shield divided into four parts. One part showed an eagle representing the empire, another showed a lion to remember Cortés's hard work, and two other parts showed symbols from the Aztec Empire, including three Aztec emperors Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and Cuauhtemoc, and the capital city of Tenochtitlan. Around the shield were symbols of the city-states Cortés defeated.

Death of his first wife and remarriage

Hernán Cortés' first wife, Catalina Súarez, arrived in New Spain around 1522. Their marriage was difficult because Catalina lacked noble status, and they had no children together. After Catalina died under mysterious circumstances in 1522, an investigation followed.

In 1529, Cortés married a noblewoman named Doña Juana de Zúñiga. This marriage brought him higher status, and they had three children together. His son Martín Cortés became his legitimate heir.

Cortés and the "Spiritual Conquest" of the Aztec Empire

When Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire, he also wanted to bring Christianity to the indigenous people. He asked the Spanish king to send religious leaders, called friars, from the Franciscan and Dominican orders to Mexico. These friars were meant to help convert the local people to Christianity.

In 1524, a group of twelve Franciscans arrived in Mexico. They were led by Fray Martín de Valencia. According to some stories, Cortés showed respect to these friars by kneeling before them, which demonstrated that even though he had political and military power, he recognized the importance of religious leaders. The Franciscans and Cortés worked closely together, and some even compared him to a leader who helped spread the Christian faith.

Expedition to Honduras and aftermath (1524–1541)

See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatán § Hernán Cortés in the Maya lowlands, 1524–25; Spanish conquest of Honduras; Spanish conquest of Guatemala § Cortés in Petén; and Spanish conquest of Petén § Cortés in Petén

From 1524 to 1526, Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras. He defeated Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed control of Honduras. Cortés brought Cuauhtémoc, the former Aztec leader, with him, but Cuauhtémoc died during the journey. Cortés then sought to arrest the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, for supporting Olid, which caused more problems with the Spanish Crown.

Cortés returned to Spain in 1528. King Charles V rewarded him for his efforts by giving him the title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and other honors. Though he kept some land and rights, Cortés was not made governor again. When he returned to Mexico in 1530, a new leader named Antonio de Mendoza was in charge of civil affairs. Cortés spent his later years building his home and exploring new areas, including parts of the Pacific coast.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After exploring Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541. He faced many lawsuits from people angry with his actions. When he spoke to the emperor, Cortés proudly said he had given the empire more land than his ancestors had left him.

Expedition against Algiers

Main article: Algiers expedition (1541)

The emperor allowed Cortés to join a big naval campaign against Algiers in 1541. During this difficult journey, Cortés almost crashed into rocks.

Taxa named after Cortés

Cortés is honored in the scientific name of a special subspecies of Mexican lizard, Phrynosoma orbiculare cortezii. Scientists sometimes name plants and animals after important historical figures, and this lizard is one such example.

Disputed interpretation of his life

There are not many sources about the early life of Hernán Cortés. He became famous for leading the conquest of Mexico, which happened in the early 1500s. Most of what we know about him comes from his own letters to the king of Spain, written during the conquest. These letters were meant to show his efforts in a good light, so they should be read carefully.

Another important source is a biography written by Cortés’s private chaplain, who never visited the Americas and often added romantic, storybook-like details. There is also an eyewitness account by one of Cortés’s soldiers, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who tells the story from the soldiers’ point of view and does not paint Cortés as a perfect hero. Because of these different accounts, people argue about whether Cortés was a cruel leader or a noble one.

Representations in Mexico

In Mexico, there are not many statues or pictures of Cortés, but some places still carry his name, like the Palacio de Cortés in Cuernavaca and streets named after him. The path between two volcanoes, Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl, where Cortés marched to Mexico City, is called the Paso de Cortés. Famous artist Diego Rivera painted Cortés in a powerful and serious way in a mural in Mexico City’s National Palace.

In 1981, a president of Mexico tried to honor Cortés by showing a statue of him publicly, but people protested, and the statue was hidden away. Another statue showing Cortés with a local woman and their child had to be moved because of protests as well.

Cultural depictions

Hernán Cortés appears as a character in an opera called La Conquista, which tells the story of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Writings: the Cartas de Relación

Cortés wrote five letters to the king of Spain about his conquest of Mexico. These letters are the main writings we have from him. The first letter was lost, but we have copies of the others, printed in Spain in the years after the conquest.

Children

Hernán Cortés had many children from different relationships. Some of his well-known children include:

• Catalina Pizarro, who married Juan de Salcedo and had a son named Pedro.
• Martín Cortés, known as the "First Mestizo," who married Bernaldina de Porras and had two children: Ana and Fernando.
• Luis Cortés, born to a woman from Trujillo in Spain.
• Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, daughter of an Aztec princess, who married Juan de Tolosa.
• María Cortés de Moctezuma, known only by name and likely born with a deformity.

Cortés married twice. His first wife, Catalina Suárez Marcaida, did not have children and passed away in 1522. His second wife, Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, bore him several children, including Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, who became the 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, and María, Catalina, and Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, who each married into noble families.

In literature and the arts

Hernán Cortés has been featured in many books, songs, and movies. The Italian composer Antonio Vivaldi wrote an opera in 1733 called Motezuma, where Cortés is called "Fernando." In 1816, the poet John Keats mentioned Cortés in his work On First Looking into Chapman's Homer, though he mistakenly said Cortés was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean.

Cortés also appears in modern stories. He is a character in Gary Jennings' 1980 novel Aztec and is portrayed by actor Cesar Romero in the 1947 film Captain from Castile. Neil Young wrote a song titled "Cortez the Killer" in 1975, and Cortés appears as a character in the animated movie The Road to El Dorado from 2000. He is also a special unit in the video game Civilization VII.