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Theory

Adapted from Wikipedia · Discoverer experience

A historical sketch showing one of the first examples of a family tree for species, from Charles Darwin's notebooks in 1837.

A theory is, in general, any hypothesis or set of ideas about something, formed in any number of ways through any sort of reasoning for any sort of reason.

Sketch from Charles Darwin's Notebooks on Transmutation of Species (1837), arguably the first example of a phylogenetic tree. (1) represents a common ancestor, the barred branches represent extant descendants, and the unmarked branches represent extinct descendants.

When applied to intellectual or academic situations, it is considered a systematic and rational form of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the conclusions derived from such thinking. It involves contemplative and logical reasoning, often supported by processes such as observation, experimentation, and research. Theories can be scientific, falling within the realm of empirical and testable knowledge, or they may belong to non-scientific disciplines, such as art or philosophy. In some cases, theories may exist independently of any formal discipline.

In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with the scientific method, and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for it, or empirical contradiction ("falsify"). Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge, in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal terms is better characterized by the word hypothesis).

Ancient usage

The word theory comes from an old Ancient Greek term meaning "looking at" or "viewing." Over time, it came to mean thoughtful, logical ideas about how nature works. Famous thinkers like Pythagoras and Aristotle used the idea of theory to describe calm, rational thinking about the world, different from doing things to change it.

These early uses helped shape what we mean by theory today — a way to understand the world through careful thought and reason.

Formality

Theories are tools we use to understand, explain, and predict things. They can be found in many areas, like science and art. A formal theory is a set of ideas that makes sense only when we apply it to real facts or events. Theories can be written in everyday language or in special languages used in math.

Theories are made up of statements that we believe are true about a certain topic. But, the truth of these statements depends on the whole theory. Sometimes, two different theories can make the same predictions and are equally good at explaining things. In math, theories are studied using special rules and starting points called axioms. These help us figure out new true statements, called theorems, which can solve real-world problems. For example, math helps us understand numbers, space, and chances.

Theory–practice relationship

Theory is often different from practice, or the actual doing of something. Scholars in fields like medicine, engineering, law, and management wonder if ideas and models from theory really help in real work. Sometimes, there is a gap between what research tells us and what people actually do. Some say that academics don’t always share their knowledge well with practitioners.

One idea suggests that theory and practice look at problems in different ways, using different ways of understanding the world. In management, some scholars suggest a way called "engaged scholarship," where they study real problems from different angles. This creates both useful practical results and new theories, shared in academic ways. They compare this to moving ideas between different areas of study.

Scientific

Main article: Scientific theory

In science, a theory is a well-supported explanation of how nature works, based on facts confirmed through observation and experiment. Scientific theories must be able to make predictions that can be tested and proven wrong, known as falsifiable predictions. The more evidence supporting a theory, the stronger it becomes.

Scientific theories help scientists understand the world and are used to make new discoveries, create technology, and solve problems. For example, theories about cells and atoms are so well-established that they are accepted facts. Theories can be improved or replaced as more evidence is gathered, leading to better understanding over time.

Mathematical

See also: List of mathematical theories

In mathematics, the word theory means something special. It refers to a whole area of math that focuses on certain ideas or methods. Examples include set theory, where we study collections of objects, and number theory, which looks at the properties of numbers.

In mathematical logic, a theory is a group of ideas, or theorems, that we can prove using a set of basic rules called axioms and methods called inference rules. This helps mathematicians build new knowledge step by step.

Philosophical

Main article: Philosophical theory

A theory can describe things, like in science, or it can give rules about how things should be, like in philosophy. Philosophical theories deal with ideas instead of things we can see or touch. Some important ideas in philosophy cannot be proven true just by looking at the world around us.

Fields of study are sometimes called "theories" because they start with certain basic ideas or rules. These starting points are like the building blocks for the whole field. Examples include set theory and number theory, but also literary theory, critical theory, and music theory.

Main article: Metatheory

A special kind of philosophical theory is called a metatheory. This is a theory about other theories. It looks at theories themselves and makes statements about how they work. These statements are known as metatheorems.

Political

Main article: Political theory

A political theory is an ethical idea about laws and how governments work. It often means a general view or belief about politics and what is right or wrong in running a country. People use political theories to think deeply about how societies should be organized and led.

Jurisprudential

Main articles: Jurisprudence and Law

In social science, jurisprudence is the philosophical theory of law. It looks at questions about how laws work and what makes a law a good or fair one. This area of study helps us understand the ideas behind laws and how they fit into our society.

Examples

Many fields use theories to explain and predict phenomena. Most of these are scientific theories, but some come from other areas like music or art. For example:

Other fields also have theories, including some that are no longer considered accurate science.

This article is a child-friendly adaptation of the Wikipedia article on Theory, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.

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