Mongols

The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and China, especially in Inner Mongolia and other regions. They also live in parts of Russia, such as Buryatia and Kalmykia. The Mongols are part of a larger group called the Mongolic peoples, which includes groups like the Oirats and the Buryats.

The Mongols share a common heritage and ethnic identity, tracing their roots back to the Proto-Mongols. They speak languages known as the Mongolian language. Their traditional homeland, often called the Mongol heartland, has a rich history, especially during the time of the powerful Mongol Empire.

Definition

The term "Mongol" includes several groups such as the Khalkha Mongols, Buryats, Oirats, and Kalmyks, along with many Southern Mongols like the Abaga Mongols, Aohans, Asud, Baarins, Chahars, Kharchins, Khishigten, Khorchins, Naimans, Ordos, Tumed, Urad, and Üzemchins.

The name "Mongol" first appeared in records from Tang China in the 8th century and later became a term for many tribes united under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century.

History

Main article: History of Mongolia

See also: Genetic history of East Asians

The Mongolic peoples have a long history linked to ancient Northeast Asian groups. Their pastoralist lifestyle has roots in both Ancient Northeast Asians and Western Steppe Herders, showing cultural exchange rather than direct genetic mixing.

Over time, Mongolic groups have been associated with various ancient peoples, including the Scythians, Magog, and Tungusic peoples. Early Chinese records trace their ancestors back to the Donghu, a nomadic group living in eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. These groups neighbored the Xiongnu, whose identity remains debated among scholars.

In the Chinese classics

See also: Timeline of Mongols prior to the Mongol Empire

Early Chinese texts mention the Donghu people living north of Yan in the years 699–632 BCE. Some unofficial sources suggest their presence dates back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), though they aren't listed among the border regions in Shang oracle bones.

The Xianbei people were part of the Donghu confederation and later developed their own identity. They originated from the Zhukaigou culture in the Ordos Desert, where they had trade links with the Shang dynasty. After the Donghu were defeated by the Xiongnu, groups like the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived and continued their traditions.

Mongol Empire

Main articles: Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan

The Mongol Empire began in the early 13th century under Genghis Khan. It grew to become one of the largest empires in history, stretching from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesia and from Japan to Palestine. The Mongols ruled as emperors in China, padishahs in Persia, and great khans of the Mongols. They established control over regions including Russia, China, and parts of Central Asia.

After the empire’s breakup, many Mongolic groups adopted surrounding cultures. However, some retained their language and traditions, especially in Mongolia. The Mongol people faced many challenges over the centuries but their heritage continues to this day.

Northern Yuan

After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. The Oirats challenged Mongol leaders, leading to divisions between Western and Eastern Mongolia. Leaders such as Taisun Khan and Esen Taish worked to reunite the Mongols, though outside powers like the Ming dynasty often interfered.

Qing era

See also: Mongolia under Qing rule

During the Qing dynasty, Mongol regions came under Chinese control. The Qing forces secured Inner Mongolia by 1635, and later conquered Western Mongol areas like the Dzungar Khanate. Despite resistance from groups such as the Khalkha and Oirats, the Qing established firm control over most Mongol lands.

Post-Qing era

With the end of Qing rule, Outer Mongolia declared independence. However, it faced challenges from both China and Russia. In 1921, Mongolian forces with Russian support liberated Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia eventually gained recognition as an independent nation, though it maintained close ties with the Soviet Union. Over the 20th century, Mongolia navigated relationships with both Russia and China while working to preserve its cultural identity.

Language

Main article: Mongolic languages

Mongolian is the main language spoken by the Mongols. It is the official language of Mongolia and also an official language in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Many Mongols also speak other Mongolic languages such as Buryat and Oirat, as well as Russian or Mandarin Chinese when talking with people from other ethnic groups.

The history of the Mongolian language has had ups and downs, especially in China, but many Mongols continue to keep their language and culture alive, even in cities where other languages are more commonly spoken.

Religion

Main articles: Buddhism in Mongolia and Mongolian Shamanism

The Mongolic peoples originally practiced Mongolian shamanism. Over time, they came into contact with many religions. Some adopted Buddhism, while others followed Confucianism, Daoism, or Shamanism.

Later, many Mongols became Buddhists, especially after the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion in 1576. Even today, Tibetan Buddhism is the most common religion among Mongolic peoples, though many also practice or believe in Shamanism. Some Mongolic groups adopted Islam or Christianity, especially in areas influenced by nearby cultures. During the socialist period, religion was restricted, but many people still practiced their beliefs quietly. Today, a large portion of Mongolic peoples identify as atheist or agnostic, while most follow Tibetan Buddhism, often blending it with Shamanistic traditions.

Kinship and family life

See also: Society of the Mongol Empire

Traditional Mongol families were organized in a way that emphasized the role of men and older family members. Families were structured so that men were the leaders, and families lived together in homes where the father and older male relatives had the most authority. When a son married, he would receive part of the family's animals and land, with the oldest son getting the largest share. The youngest son stayed with his parents and eventually inherited the family home after they passed away.

Beyond the family, Mongols also had larger groups called clans. These clans were based on shared ancestry, with members tracing their family back to a common ancestor. The clans had a clear order of importance, with some families considered more senior than others based on their lineage. This system helped organize social life and relationships among Mongol communities.

Royal family

The royal clan of the Mongols is the Borjigin clan, which descended from Bodonchar Munkhag around the year 850. This important family produced leaders called Khans and princes for Mongolia and nearby areas until the early 1900s. All the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire, including its famous founder Genghis Khan, belonged to the Borjigin clan.

The Khongirad clan was closely linked to the Borjigin, providing many empresses and consorts. Other clans also added to the royal family through marriages, connecting the Mongols to many different cultures and royal families around the world.

Historical population

The Mongols are an ethnic group from East Asia, mainly living in Mongolia and parts of China, such as Inner Mongolia. They also have communities in Russia, specifically in Buryatia and Kalmykia. The Mongols are part of a larger group known as the Mongolic peoples, which includes other groups like the Oirats and Buryats. These groups are sometimes considered separate from the Mongols or as subgroups of them, depending on how they are studied.

The history of the Mongols is rich and influential, especially during the time of the Mongol Empire, one of the largest empires in history. Their culture and traditions continue to be an important part of the regions where they live.

Main articles: History of Mongolia, Mongol Empire

Geographic distribution

Today, most Mongols live in Mongolia, China (especially Inner Mongolia), Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and Afghanistan. They belong to many different groups or tribes, such as the Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Barga, Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd, Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin, Bayads, Khoton, Myangad, and Zakhchin.

The Eastern Mongols are mainly in Mongolia and include groups like the Khalkha and Buryats. The Southern or Inner Mongols live mainly in Inner Mongolia, China, and include many tribes such as the Abaga, Abaganar, Aohans, and others. The Buryats live mainly in the Buryat Republic in Russia. The Western Oirats are mainly in Western Mongolia and include groups like the Kalmyks in Russia and Oirats in China.