Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, military, and political leader, as well as the founder of Islam. According to Islam, he was the final prophet of God who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets in Islam. He is believed by Muslims to be the Seal of the Prophets, and along with the Quran, his teachings and normative examples form the basis for Islamic religious belief.

Born in Mecca to the aristocratic Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather and uncle after his parents died. When he was 40, he reported receiving his first revelation from God in a mountain cave named Hira. In 613, he began preaching these revelations publicly, teaching that "God is One" and calling for complete "submission" (Islām) to God.

After facing persecution in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622, an event known as the Hijrah, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, he united the tribes and later led an army to conquer Mecca in 629 with minimal conflict. By the time of his death in 632, much of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.

The revelations Muhammad reported receiving became the verses of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, regarded by Muslims as the word of God. His teachings and practices, recorded in hadith and his biography (sīrah), continue to guide Islamic belief and law. Muhammad is also respected in other faiths, such as Sikhism, the Druze faith, and the Baháʼí Faith.

Biographical sources

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad

Further information: Revisionist school of Islamic studies

Learning about the life of Muhammad is important because it helps us understand how Islam began. Early writers from the 8th and 9th centuries CE wrote about his life, but these writings started many years after Muhammad lived. This makes it hard for historians to know how accurate these stories are.

One of the earliest books about Muhammad was written by Ibn Ishaq around the year 767 CE. Parts of his work survive in other books. Other early writers also told stories about Muhammad’s life and teachings. Muslims also study collections of sayings and actions called hadith, which were written down many years after Muhammad’s time. The Quran, Islam’s holy book, is believed to be the words of God given to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. It talks about Muhammad but mostly focuses on teaching and guidance for believers.

Meccan years

Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570 CE. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. His father died before he was born, and his mother passed away when he was young. He was raised by his grandfather and later by his uncle Abu Talib.

Muhammad married Khadija, a wealthy merchant, when he was 25. In 610 CE, at age 40, he began receiving revelations from the angel Gabriel in a cave near Mecca. These revelations formed the basis of the Quran. Muhammad faced opposition from the Quraysh leaders in Mecca for his teachings, which challenged their traditional beliefs and way of life. Despite this, he continued to share his messages with those who would listen.

Medinan years

Main article: First Islamic state

Muhammad spent his time in Medina building a community and spreading his teachings. He built a mosque that served as a place for prayer and community gatherings. This mosque became a center for Muslims and was open to people of other faiths as well.

During his time in Medina, Muhammad faced challenges from nearby groups. There were conflicts with tribes who opposed his leadership and teachings. These conflicts sometimes led to battles, where Muhammad and his followers defended their community. Despite these challenges, Muhammad continued to work towards peace and understanding among different groups.

Over time, Muhammad's leadership helped strengthen the Muslim community in Medina. He created agreements to promote peace and cooperation, and his efforts laid the foundation for the growth of Islam.

Final years

Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Expedition of Tabuk

Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage

See also: Ghadir Khumm

The truce of Hudaybiyyah lasted for two years before breaking due to conflicts between tribes. In 630, Muhammad marched to Mecca with 10,000 followers and took control with little fighting. He offered forgiveness to most people but punished a few for serious crimes. Many Meccans turned to Islam, and Muhammad removed statues of old Arab gods from the Kaaba.

After taking Mecca, Muhammad faced the tribe of Banu Hawazin at the valley of Hunayn. Though surprised, Muhammad's forces won, capturing many people and animals. Later, he moved toward the city of Taif but could not capture it. About ten months after Mecca, Muhammad led an army to Tabuk, a region near Byzantine Syria, to strengthen his rule and gain resources. During his final pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad delivered an important speech outlining key teachings for his followers.

Death

Muhammad faced a severe headache and much pain in June 632. He spent time with his wives but eventually grew too weak to move without help. He was cared for by his family and passed away on June 8, 632. In his final moments, he asked God for forgiveness and mercy.

Tomb

Muhammad was buried in the house where he passed away. Later, the Prophet's Mosque in Medina was expanded to include his tomb, and a famous Green Dome was built above it. Nearby are tombs of important companions, including the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, as well as an empty tomb that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.

Succession

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Rashidun, and Early Muslim conquests

After Muhammad passed away, there was disagreement about who should lead the Muslim community next. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a close friend of Muhammad, suggested Abu Bakr, who was then chosen as the first caliph. Some believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor.

Abu Bakr focused on strengthening the new Islamic state. He dealt with tribes that were unhappy and also began efforts against nearby empires, seeking to protect and expand the influence of the Muslim community. During this time, many people in the areas ruled by the Byzantine and Sasanian empires were unhappy with their leaders, which helped the Muslims as they expanded into regions like Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and parts of Persia, forming the Rashidun Caliphate.

Household

Muhammad’s family life can be split into two parts: before moving to Medina and after. At 25, he married a woman named Khadija, who was much older than him. They were married for 25 years and had several children together. After Khadija passed away, Muhammad married other women, including a young girl named Aisha.

Muhammad helped with everyday tasks at home, such as cooking and mending clothes. He valued the opinions of his wives and often talked with them about important matters. Many of his wives lived long lives after he passed away and helped keep his teachings alive.

Legacy

Islamic tradition

In Islam, Muhammad is believed to be the last prophet sent by God. Muslims proclaim their faith by saying, "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God." This statement, called the Shahada, is very important in Islam. It is often the first thing a newborn hears and is said again when someone passes away.

The teachings and examples of Muhammad, known as the sunnah, guide many aspects of Islamic life. These include daily prayers, fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. Stories about Muhammad’s life and miracles are loved by many Muslims.

Islamic social reforms

Main article: Early social changes under Islam

Muhammad’s teachings brought important changes to society. He spoke about caring for the poor and helping those in need. Islam taught that all people should be treated fairly, regardless of their background. These ideas helped improve the lives of many people in the Arabian Peninsula.

European appreciation

Many famous thinkers and leaders from Europe admired Muhammad for his leadership and wisdom. They saw him as a great lawgiver and a unifier of people. Even though opinions varied, many respected his role in shaping history and his influence on millions of people.