North Africa during classical antiquity

The history of North Africa during the period of classical antiquity (c. 8th century BCE – 5th century CE) is rich and varied, covering many important regions and cultures. In the east, Egypt experienced rule by the Persians before becoming part of the Ptolemaic dynasty during the Hellenistic era. In the middle, ancient Libya was home to Berber tribes, while along the coast, Phoenician and Greek colonies thrived.

The Roman Republic began its influence in 146 BCE after defeating Carthage, establishing the province of Africa. Over time, the Roman Empire expanded its control across the entire Mediterranean coast of Africa. This included adding Egypt in 30 BCE, Crete and Cyrenaica in 20 BCE, and Mauretania in CE 44.

Eventually, the Western Roman Empire lost much of Africa to the Vandals in the 5th century. However, the Eastern Roman Empire later reclaimed these areas in the 6th century. Finally, by the close of the 7th century, the region came under the control of the Umayyad conquest of North Africa, marking the end of classical Roman influence in the area.

Early classical period

Main article: Late Period of ancient Egypt

Further information: Persian Egypt

Further information: Ancient Carthage and Ancient Libya

The Late Period of ancient Egypt was the time when native Egyptian rulers governed the land after the Third Intermediate Period. It began with the Saite Twenty-sixth Dynasty and ended when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE. After Alexander's death, Egypt became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded by Ptolemy I Soter.

Around 900 BC, Phoenician traders arrived on the North African coast and founded Carthage around 800 BCE in what is now Tunisia. From there, the Carthaginians created settlements along the coast, including places in modern Algeria such as Tipasa, Hippo Regius (now Annaba), and Rusicade (now Skikda). These settlements grew into important trading towns. The Carthaginians traded with local Berber people, helping create a mixed culture, though some Berbers were also affected by Carthage's expanding power.

Hellenistic era

Further information: Ancient Libya and Marmarica

Ptolemaic Egypt

Main article: Ptolemaic Egypt

Egypt was not considered part of Libya (Africa) during the Hellenistic era. The boundary between Africa and Asia was at Catabathmus Magnus, separating Libya proper from western Egypt.

Carthage and the Punic Wars

Main articles: Carthage and Punic Wars

During the Mercenary War from 241 to 238 BCE, Berber soldiers fought after not being paid following Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War. They took control of much of Carthage's North African lands. Carthage's power declined after losses in the Punic Wars, and the city was destroyed in 146 BCE.

Berber kingdoms

Main articles: Numidia, Mauretania, and Garamantes

As Carthage weakened, Berber leaders gained more influence. By the 2nd century BCE, large Berber kingdoms formed in areas like Numidia and Mauretania. The Berber civilization reached its peak under Masinissa in the 2nd century BCE. After Masinissa's death, these kingdoms changed hands many times. The Berber lands were finally taken over by the Roman Empire in CE 24.

Roman era

Further information: Roman Mauretania, Roman Numidia, Africa Province, Creta et Cyrenaica, Marmarica, and Roman Egypt

The Romans took control of North Africa's northern coast after defeating Carthage. The Roman Empire ruled all the coasts from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic Ocean of modern Morocco. The Roman military had a small presence in North Africa, with about 28,000 troops and helpers in Numidia and the two Mauretanian areas. By the 2nd century CE, these soldiers were mostly local people because the region was peaceful and fully adopted Roman culture.

Besides Carthage, many new towns grew under Roman emperors like Claudius, Nerva, and Trajan. In what is now Algeria, towns such as Tipasa, Djemila, Timgad, and Setif were established. North Africa became known as the "granary of the empire" because it exported a lot of grain to places like Italy and Greece. Other important crops included fruits, figs, grapes, beans, and olive oil.

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in the Roman Africa province

Early Christianity began in the 2nd century and spread quickly in towns and among enslaved people. By the end of the 4th century, most settled areas had turned to Christianity, and some Berber tribes also converted. A big debate called the Donatist controversy started in 313. The Donatists believed only pure leaders could perform church services. Augustine, the bishop of Hippo Regius, argued that the holiness of the leader did not matter because Christ was the true minister. This dispute lasted until an imperial decision in Carthage in 411, though Donatist groups remained until the 6th century.

Devastation and decline

Further information: Diocese of Africa, Vandal Kingdom, Praetorian prefecture of Africa, Exarchate of Africa, and Muslim conquest of the Maghreb

A huge tsunami hit North Africa in 365 AD, destroying cities and ruining farmland. This led to less trade and weaker Roman control. New kingdoms formed in mountainous and desert areas, and Berbers took back many towns. Later, the Vandals ruled most of Africa Proconsularis for about a hundred years. In 533, Belisarius, a general for the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, invaded and defeated the Vandals. However, many rural areas returned to Berber control, and Byzantine North Africa was eventually lost during the Muslim conquests.