Peru

Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered to the north by Ecuador and Colombia, to the east by Brazil, to the southeast by Bolivia, to the south by Chile, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. With a population of over 32 million, Peru is the 19th largest country in the world and the third largest in South America. Its capital and largest city is Lima.

Peruvian territory has a long history, with ancient civilizations like the Caral–Supe civilization, one of the earliest in the Americas, and later the impressive Inca Empire. Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821 and completed it in 1824 after the battle of Ayacucho. Over the years, the country has experienced periods of stability and instability, including recent challenges like political crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Today, Peru is a representative democratic republic with main economic activities including mining, manufacturing, agriculture, and fishing. The country is known for its rich cultural diversity, with mixtures of Mestizo, Amerindian, European, African, and Asian heritage. Peru’s cuisine is widely celebrated, with Lima recognized as a global culinary capital, featuring renowned restaurants such as Central and Maido.

Etymology

The name "Peru" might come from Birú, a local ruler near the Bay of San Miguel in Panama. Spanish explorers who arrived in 1522 thought this area was the southern end of the New World. When Francisco Pizarro traveled further south, they called those places Birú or Perú.

Another story comes from Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, who was the son of an Inca princess and a Spanish explorer. He explained that the name Birú came from a person the Spanish met by chance. The Spanish crown later made the name official, calling the land Peru. Over time, it became the Peruvian Republic after gaining independence, and now it is known as the Republic of Peru.

History

Main article: History of Peru

See also: Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru, Agricultural history of Peru, and Economic history of Peru

Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru

Main articles: Pre-Columbian Peru and Andean civilizations

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in the Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral-Supe civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture was an example of early pre-Inca culture.

The Chavín culture developed from 1500 to 300 BCE, centered around their religious site in Chavín de Huantar. After the Chavín culture declined, various localized cultures rose and fell over the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, Chimu, and Moche.

The Moche, who reached their peak in the first millennium CE, were known for their irrigation systems, pottery, buildings, and metalwork. The Chimu built large cities along the northern Peruvian coast, with their capital at Chan Chan near modern-day Trujillo. In the highlands, the Tiahuanaco culture near Lake Titicaca and the Wari culture developed large urban settlements.

In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state, forming the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco. Starting as a small group, the Incas gradually expanded, incorporating neighboring regions. Under leaders like Pachacuti and Topa Inca Yupanqui, they controlled most of the Andean region. The Inca empire, called Tawantinsuyu, covered areas from southern Colombia to northern Chile. The Inca worshipped Inti, the sun god, and considered their king the "child of the sun."

Conquest and colonial period

Main articles: Spanish conquest of Peru and Viceroyalty of Peru

In 1532, Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa at the Battle of Cajamarca. This began a long campaign that ended in Spanish control over the region, known as the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. The indigenous population declined due to diseases brought by the Spanish and changes in society.

The Spanish established mining as a key economic activity, particularly silver and gold from places like Potosí and Huancavelica. They introduced African slaves to expand the workforce. The Spanish also spread Catholicism throughout South America, building churches and replacing some Inca temples. By the 18th century, economic changes led to reforms that caused unrest, including rebellions like that of Túpac Amaru II. Eventually, these tensions contributed to the independence movements of the early 19th century.

Independence

In the early 19th century, Peru achieved independence after military campaigns led by José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. San Martín declared Peruvian independence in 1821, and Bolívar later secured full independence with victories at the Battle of Junín and the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824. During this time, Peru faced political instability but began to form its national identity.

19th century

After independence, Peru experienced periods of stability and conflict. Under President Ramón Castilla, the country saw growth from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, resources were depleted, leading to debt and political struggles. The War of the Pacific with Chile from 1879 to 1884 resulted in significant losses for Peru, including territory. The war ended with treaties and efforts to rebuild the country.

20th century

Peru faced internal struggles and periods of stability in the 20th century. The Great Depression affected the country, leading to political changes. Military leaders took control at times, including General Juan Velasco Alvarado, who implemented land reforms. Economic challenges persisted, and in the 1980s, insurgent groups like Sendero Luminoso caused turmoil. President Alberto Fujimori brought economic reforms but also faced criticism for human rights issues.

21st century

Peru continued to face political and economic challenges in the 21st century. Presidents came and went, often amid controversy and impeachment efforts. The COVID-19 pandemic severely affected the country, highlighting existing inequalities. Political instability persisted, with frequent changes in leadership and protests from the public. In recent years, Peru has seen efforts to address corruption and sustain economic growth while dealing with social tensions.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru

Peru is in western South America, bordering Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, and the Pacific Ocean. The country has three main areas: the coastal plain, the Andes mountains, and the Amazon rainforest. The Andes include the highest peak, Huascarán, and the large Lake Titicaca. Peru is rich in rivers, with the Amazon River starting there and flowing through much of the country.

Main article: Climate of Peru

Peru has many climates due to its mountains and coast. The coast is dry and warm, the mountains have cold, rainy areas, and the Amazon region is hot and wet.

Main article: Wildlife of Peru

Peru has many plants and animals, including birds, mammals, reptiles, and fish. It is one of the world's most biodiverse countries, with many unique species found only there.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

Peru is a semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system. The government is separated into three branches: the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The Congress of Peru has 130 members who are elected to five-year terms. The president is both the head of state and government, elected for a five-year term without immediate reelection. The president appoints ministers who help run the country.

Peru uses a multi-party system for elections. The most recent general election was held in April 2021, where Free Peru won the most seats in Congress. The president is elected through a two-round system if no candidate gets a majority in the first round. Elections are organized by several national bodies to ensure they are fair and transparent.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru

Peru has the 47th largest economy in the world by purchasing power parity. Its economy has grown quickly, especially during the 2000s. Peru's wealth often comes from selling natural resources like copper and gold. However, not everyone in Peru benefits equally, and some people still live in poverty.

Peru’s economy changes over time. In the past, leaders tried different ways to make the country richer, but these often did not work as planned. Today, Peru’s economy depends on mining, agriculture, and tourism. Mining is very important, with Peru being a top producer of many valuable minerals. Agriculture is also key, with Peru growing a wide variety of foods. Tourism is growing fast, with many visitors coming to see places like Machu Picchu.

Demographics

Peru has a population of about 33.4 million people, making it the fourth most populous country in South America. Most people live near the coast, while smaller numbers live in the mountains and jungle areas. Major cities include Lima metropolitan area, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo.

Peru is a multiethnic nation with many different racial and ethnic groups. The largest group is mestizo, with significant numbers of Indigenous people, Whites, Blacks, and East Asians. Spanish is the main language, but Quechua and other Indigenous languages are also spoken, especially in rural areas. Most Peruvians are Catholic, though other religions are also present. Education is free and compulsory, with many schools and universities across the country.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Peru

Peruvian culture is shaped by Iberian and Andean traditions, with influences from European, Asian, and African groups. Art in Peru dates back to ancient times, with early cultures creating pottery, textiles, and jewelry. The Incas built impressive structures like Machu Picchu. During colonial times, art often focused on religious themes, and later evolved into many modern styles.

Peruvian art began with ancient Andean civilizations before the Spanish arrived. These cultures created decorative works from gold, silver, and ceramics. Later, the Inca Civilization built amazing architecture, including Machu Picchu. After the Spanish came, art mixed European styles with local traditions.

Peruvian literature includes stories from before the Spanish arrived, written by people after the Spanish introduced reading. After Peru became independent, new styles like Costumbrism and Romanticism appeared. Today, famous writers like Mario Vargas Llosa are known worldwide.

Music in Peru has roots in Andean, Spanish, and African traditions. Instruments like the quena, tinya, and charango are popular. Peruvian folk dances include marinera and huayno. The country also has famous rock and pop musicians.

Peruvian movies have had success in Latin America. Early films began in Iquitos, and Peru created the first animated 3-D film in Latin America. Directors like Claudia Llosa have won awards for their films.

Peruvian food mixes Amerindian and Spanish food with influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Popular dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Lima is known for its great restaurants.

Football is the most popular sport in Peru. The national team has played in the FIFA World Cup and won the Copa América twice. Other popular sports include volleyball, surfing, and karate. Peru has won many medals at the Pan American Games.