Prehistoric Europe

Prehistoric Europe refers to the time in Europe before people started writing down their history, beginning in the Lower Paleolithic. During this long period, early humans lived across the continent, hunting animals and gathering plants for food. They used simple tools made from stone and bone, and over time, these tools became more advanced.

As time went on, different regions of Europe developed in their own unique ways. The eastern Mediterranean area, close to important early civilizations in the Middle East, was especially influenced by them. This area was the first in Europe to develop organized communities and eventually, systems for writing down information.

One of the oldest known writings from Europe is the Histories by Herodotus, written around 440 BC. This book tries to record traditions, important public events, and other notable things that happened, making it a valuable source for understanding early European history. Studying prehistoric Europe helps us learn about the lives of our ancestors and how human societies began to develop.

Overview

See also: History of Europe

During the Lower Paleolithic, from about 3 million to 300,000 years ago, early humans in Europe left behind fossils and stone tools. The Atapuerca Mountains in Spain show some of the oldest known places where groups of people lived together for many generations.

Homo neanderthalensis lived in Europe between 600,000 and 350,000 years ago, leaving many fossils and tools behind. Modern humans arrived later, around 56,800 to 51,700 years ago. Over time, people spread across Europe, moving north as the ice sheets retreated. By about 8,000 years ago, farmers from the Near East brought new ways of living to Europe during the Neolithic period.

Important early settlements like Lepenski Vir in Serbia show that some communities lived in permanent homes long before farming began. The Vinča culture in Serbia was also one of the first to work with copper, a big step in making tools and other objects. Later, around 3200 BC, people in Europe learned to make bronze, which brought even more changes to their lives.

By the European Iron Age, which started around 1200 BC, Europe began to see the rise of more complex societies and the spread of writing, thanks to influences from places like the Hittites and later the Greeks and Romans.

Stone Age

Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

Further information: Paleolithic Europe

The Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, was a time when early humans lived in Europe during a cold period called the Pleistocene. The climate changed often between warmer and colder times, affecting where people could live. Tools made from stone, like simple pebble tools and later more advanced hand axes, show how early humans, such as Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis, survived.

Later, Homo neanderthalensis lived across Europe, adapting well to cold climates. They created tools known as Mousterian tools. Around this time, Homo sapiens arrived in Europe, bringing new tools and art. They lived alongside Neanderthals for a while, and evidence shows they may have mixed together.

Upper Paleolithic

Main articles: European early modern humans and Paleolithic Europe

Homo sapiens reached Europe about 46,000 years ago, entering through a route called the Danubian corridor. They brought new kinds of tools and art, like bone points and cave paintings. This period saw the rise of cultures such as the Aurignacian, known for its fine tools and early art. Neanderthals also changed their ways, adopting some of the new cultures, but eventually disappeared around 40,000 years ago.

New cultures like the Gravettian and Solutrean appeared, known for their advanced tools and art, including sculptures and cave paintings. By about 12,500 years ago, the Magdalenian culture emerged, bringing more sophisticated art and tools. As the climate warmed, new cultures like the Azilian and Sauveterrian developed, using small stone tools called microliths.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

Main article: Mesolithic Europe

Further information: Balkan Mesolithic, British Mesolithic, Irish Mesolithic, Azilian, Fosna–Hensbacka culture, and Kunda culture

The Mesolithic period was a time of change between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. It began around 15,000 years ago in the Balkans and about 14,000 years ago in Western Europe. People lived off the land, using tools and hunting in areas that had become richer in food because of warmer climates.

As farming began to spread into Europe, the Mesolithic way of life slowly ended. This change happened at different times in different places, from about 8,500 to 5,500 years ago. During this time, people created beautiful art and tools, showing their skill and creativity.

Neolithic (New Stone Age)

Main article: Neolithic Europe

Further information: Old Europe (archaeology)

The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, in Europe began with the arrival of farming from the Near East. It spread through areas such as Asia Minor, the Mediterranean, and the Caucasus. Some historians believe that farming spread quickly as people moved into new areas, while others think it was a slower process of sharing ideas.

Early farming communities appeared in places like Thessaly in Greece, where people first grew crops and raised animals. From there, farming spread to other parts of Europe. Cultures such as the Sesklo culture and Karanovo culture were important in spreading agriculture. These groups brought new ways of living, including growing crops and making pottery, to many regions.

Over time, Neolithic societies grew more complex. New cultures emerged, and people continued to spread farming and new ideas across Europe. By the late Neolithic, Europe had many different cultural groups, each with their own traditions and ways of life. Important developments included the building of large stone tombs known as megaliths, showing the growing skill and organization of these early European societies.

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Main article: Chalcolithic Europe

Further information: Old Europe (archaeology)

The Chalcolithic, also called the Copper Age, was a time of big changes in Europe. One of the biggest changes was the invention of working with copper, which was first used in the Vinca culture around 6,000 years ago. The Balkans became an important place for getting copper from the ground and making things from it. Copper items were traded all over Europe, even as far as eastern Europe.

During this time, some places began to have richer people and leaders, especially in the Balkans. For example, the Varna culture in Bulgaria around 4,500 BC made the first gold items known to us. People also started to mine metals and stones in certain places and then send them to other regions to make valuable goods.

This period saw the growth of big settlements and the first signs of wheeled vehicles. Cultures like the Cucuteni-Trypillia in Ukraine built some of the largest towns of the time. In western Europe, huge stone buildings called megaliths were built, stretching from Sweden to Spain. Different cultures developed in various parts of Europe, each with their own special ways of living and building.

Bronze Age

Main article: Bronze Age Europe

The Bronze Age in Europe began around 3200 BC in the Aegean region with the use of bronze. Over the next centuries, new cultures emerged and spread across Europe. The Catacomb culture moved into areas north and east of the Black Sea, while the Corded Ware culture expanded into western Germany and Scandinavia.

During this time, the Beaker people appeared in Europe, known for their distinct pottery and burial rituals. They spread from central Europe to areas as far west as Portugal and as far north as Sweden. Other important cultures included the Minoan civilization on Crete and the Mycenaean Greeks, who later influenced many parts of Europe. The Bronze Age saw the rise of new technologies, such as bronze working and chariot use, and brought changes to many cultures across the continent.

Iron Age

Main article: Iron Age Europe

Further information: Hallstatt culture, La Tène culture, and Archaeology of Northern Europe

The Iron Age in Europe began around 800 BC when iron use spread from the Aegean to Central Europe, leading to the Hallstatt culture. During this time, the Phoenicians established colonies like Gadir (modern Cádiz) to trade minerals, while the Greeks later founded cities such as Massalia (Marseille).

The later Iron Age saw the rise of the Celtic La Tène culture around 400 BC, with Celts expanding across Europe. This period ended as Germanic tribes moved into Celtic areas and the Roman Empire began to form, marking the end of prehistoric Europe.

Genetic history

Main article: Genetic history of Europe

The genetic history of Europe helps us understand where early Europeans came from by studying their DNA. Scientists look at both modern and ancient DNA to learn about the past. They discovered that early humans first entered Europe from the Near East and later spread across the whole continent.

Studies show that today’s Europeans come from three main groups: hunter-gatherers who lived in Europe long ago, early farmers who arrived during a big change called the Neolithic Revolution, and people from northern Eurasia. Over time, new groups moved into Europe, mixing with the local people and changing the genetic makeup of the continent. Recent research even suggests that people in prehistoric Europe had darker skin than previously thought, with lighter skin developing later in different places.

Linguistic history

Main articles: Paleo-European languages and Pre-Indo-European languages

The written history of languages in Europe started with early Greek writing from the Mycenaean time in the Late Bronze Age. Before this, many languages were spoken but not recorded, and scientists study them by looking at later languages. One major language family, the Indo-European linguistics languages, spread from the Pontic steppe to Western Europe around the same time as the Beaker culture.

There are ideas about even older languages in Europe, like the "Pelasgian" or "Tyrsenian" languages, but these are guesses since they were never written down. Some think early forms of Indo-European linguistics or other language families like Finno-Ugric languages might have been spoken too. Experts note that Europe likely had many different languages spoken by small groups of people before big societies formed.