Slovakia

Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, and the second largest city is Košice.

The history of Slovakia dates back to the 5th and 6th centuries when Slavs arrived in the region. Over the centuries, the area was part of various empires, including the Avar Khaganate, Samo's Empire, Great Moravia, and later the Kingdom of Hungary. During World War II, Slovakia became independent briefly as a state allied with Nazi Germany, but it rejoined Czechoslovakia after the war. In 1993, Slovakia became an independent democratic country following the peaceful split known as the Velvet Divorce.

Today, Slovakia is a developed country with a strong economy, particularly known for car manufacturing—it is the world's largest per-capita car producer. The country offers its citizens universal health care, free education, and a good social security system. Slovakia is also a member of many international organizations, including the European Union and NATO, and it is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Etymology

See also: Slovaks § Name

The name "Slovakia" means the "Land of the Slavs." It comes from the word Slovensko in the Slovak language. This word is related to the names Slovenia and Slavonia. Over time, different languages have used similar names to refer to the Slovaks and their lands. For example, in German, the lands were sometimes called Windenland. The name Slovakia as we know it today started to be used in the 16th century.

History

Main article: History of Slovakia

The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.

Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.

Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.

Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.

After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.

Iron Age

Hallstatt Period

The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.

A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BCE, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.

La Tène Period

From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful oppida on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and a head on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.

Roman Period

From 2 CE, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Stupava, Devín Castle, Bratislava Castle Hill, and the Bratislava-Dúbravka suburb.

Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.

Great invasions from the fourth to seventh centuries

In the second and third centuries CE, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 CE and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hunnic empire. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.

In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.

Avars

In 568, the Avars, under Khagan Bayan I established an empire in the Carpathian Basin that lasted for 250 years.

Slavic states

The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the fifth century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the seventh century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the eighth century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.

Great Moravia (830–before 907)

Main article: Great Moravia

Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.

In 862, Prince Rastislav of Moravia rebelled against the Franks, and after hiring Hungarian troops, won his independence; this was the first time that Hungarians expeditionary troops entered the Carpathian Basin.

On Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., Dowina, sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.^{[full citation needed]}

During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.

In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.

After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.

It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).

Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development.

Grand Principality of Hungary (895–1000)

Main article: Principality of Hungary

Foundation of the Hungarian state is connected to the Hungarian conquerors, who arrived from the Pontic steppes as a confederation of seven tribes. The Hungarians arrived in the frame of a strong centralized steppe-empire under the leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád, they became founders of the Árpád dynasty, the Hungarian ruling dynasty and the Hungarian state. The Árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of the great Hun leader Attila. The Hungarians took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862 and 895. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.

Just a few decades after the collapse of the Avar Khaganate in 822, once again a steppe empire, the Hungarian Grand Principality united the Carpathian Basin under its rule. Only the East Frankish Empire had such military power that it could intervent in the formation of the new order. His leadership also wanted to eliminate the new steppe state because the East Frankish Empire lost Pannonia and its Christian Avar taxpayers, and his territory was hit by increasing attacks by the Hungarians, especially Bavaria, which was then the eastern province of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom. In 907, three East Francian armies led by Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria, which entered the Hungarian territory in order to expel the Hungarians from the Carpathian Basin, is annihilated by the Hungarian army at the Battle of Pressburg. Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria, Dietmar I, Archbishop of Salzburg, Prince Sieghard, 19 counts, 2 bishops, and 3 abbots are killed in the battle, together with the majority of the soldiers. The Hungarians secured the lands they gained during the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, and prevented a future German invasion, the Germans did not launch an imperial scale campaign against Hungary for 123 years until 1030.

The Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire (1000–1918)

Main articles: Kingdom of Hungary, Habsburg monarchy, and Ottoman Empire

In 972, the ruling prince Géza of the Árpád dynasty officially started to integrate Grand Principality of Hungary into Christian Western Europe. His son Saint Stephen I became the first King of Hungary after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány. Under Stephen, Hungary was recognised as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom. Applying to Pope Sylvester II, Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including probably a part of the Holy Crown of Hungary) from the papacy.

In the years 1001–1002 and 1018–1029, Slovakia was part of the Kingdom of Poland, having been conquered by Boleslaus I the Brave. After the territory of Slovakia was returned to Hungary, a semi-autonomous polity continued to exist (or was created in 1048 by king Andrew I) called Duchy of Nitra. Comprising roughly the territory of Principality of Nitra and Bihar principality, they formed what was called a tercia pars regni, third of a kingdom.

This polity existed up until 1108/1110, after which it was not restored. After this, up until the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the territory of Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition of Slovakia became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.

A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. After the invasion, much of the territory was destroyed, but was recovered largely thanks to Hungarian king Béla IV. However, in medieval times the area of Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. The arrival of German element sometimes proved a problem for the autochthonous Slovaks (and even Hungarians in the broader Hungary), since they often quickly gained most power in medieval towns, only to later refuse to share it. Breaking of old customs by Germans often resulted in national quarrels. One of which had to be sorted out by the king Louis I. with the proclamation Privilegium pro Slavis (Privilege for Slovaks) in the year 1381. According to this privilege, Slovaks and Germans were to occupy each half of the seats in the city council of Žilina and the mayor should be elected each year, alternating between those nationalities. This would not be the last such case.

In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.

Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.

The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. In 1682, the Principality of Upper Hungary, a short-lived Ottoman vassal state, was established in the territory of modern Slovakia. Prior to this, regions on its southern rim were already encompassed in the Egri, Budin and Uyvar eyalets. Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.

During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks started uprising, supporting the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy and greater autonomy within the empire. They failed to achieve their aim, but the conflict resulted in Slovak rights for language in certain administrative and educational areas.

Thereafter, relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarisation), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.

Czechoslovak independence (1918–1939)

Main articles: Dissolution of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, First Czechoslovak Republic, Munich Agreement, and Second Czechoslovak Republic

See also: Slovak Soviet Republic and Autonomous Land of Slovakia

On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia.

During the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Czechs, Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain in 1919 and Treaty of Trianon in 1920. By the treaties following the World War I, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state.

During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.

In the 1930s, Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revanchist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialise. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.

Fascist regime during World War II (1939–1945)

See also: Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945), Czechoslovak government-in-exile, and Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history.

A one-party clerical fascist Slovak Republic governed by the far-right Hlinka's Slovak People's Party was led by President Jozef Tiso and Prime Minister Vojtech Tuka. The (First) Slovak Republic is primarily known for its collaboration with Nazi Germany, which included sending troops to the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the Soviet Union in 1941. On 24 November 1940, Slovakia joined the Axis when its leaders signed the Tripartite Pact. The country was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.

Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.

The local Jewish population was heavily persecuted. As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labour camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations. Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).

After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched. Internal opposition to the fascist government's policies culminated in the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. Although the uprising was eventually suppressed, partisan resistance continued. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.

From Fascism to Communism (1945–1948)

Main articles: Third Czechoslovak Republic and 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état

See also: Soviet annexation of Transcarpathia

As a result of the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Czechoslovakia came under the influence of the Soviet Union.

After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained.^{[failed verification]}

In February 1948, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, with Soviet backing, assumed undisputed control over the government of Czechoslovakia through a coup d'état and Czechoslovakia came under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact. It became a puppet state of the Soviet Union, but it was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a certain degree.

Communist party rule in Czechoslovakia (1948–1989)

Main article: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

See also: Cold War, Iron Curtain, Prague Spring, Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and Communist Party of Czechoslovakia

Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989. 8,240 people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.

On 11 July 1960, the Constitution of Czechoslovakia was promulgated, changing the name of the country from the "Czechoslovak Republic" to the "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic".

In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania), ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the invasion.

In 1969, Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic within the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.

Czechoslovakia was allied with communist regimes worldwide. As one of the first countries in the world acknowledged Kim Il-sung's Democratic People's Republic of Korea. After the beginning of the Korean War, Czechoslovakia protested against measures taken by the Security Council. Czechoslovak communist leaders considered the intervention against North Korean aggression illegal. During summer 1950, many resolutions against "American imperialism" were sent to the United Nations from Czechoslovakia. During the Korean War in 1952, Czechoslovakia sent a military hospital with two hospital teams consisting of 58 people to North Korea.

When Fidel Castro took power after the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Czechoslovakia opened an embassy in Cuba and developed mutual relations. In August 1968, Castro denounced the Prague Spring as led by a "fascist reactionary rabble" and praised the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. During the Vietnam War, Czechoslovakia sent significant aid to North Vietnam. The Czechoslovak government created committees which sought to not only promote and establish peace, but also to promote victory for Viet Cong and Vietnam People's Army forces. Czech-made equipment and military aid would increase significantly following the Prague Spring. Czechoslovakia continued to send tens of thousands of Czech-made rifles as well as mortar and artillery throughout the war.

From Communism to Democracy (1989–1992)

Main article: Czech and Slovak Federative Republic

See also: Slovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation and Constitution of Slovakia

The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic renamed as Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, the word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics within the federation, the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic.

On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Vladimír Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.

Slovak independence (since 1993)

1990s

The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways on 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce, after 74 years of joint existence disrupted only by World War II. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic; the two countries are close European allies and both co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. The first President of the Slovak Republic became Michal Kováč, elected by the National Council of Slovakia in February 1993. Slovakia became a member of the United Nations on 19 January 1993, on 31 March 1993 ratified the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, making its historical sites eligible for inclusion on the UNESCO list and on 15 April 1993 joined GATT (current World Trade Organization).

After the fall of communism and the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the country was unprepared for organised crime. Crime rates in Slovakia soared in the 1990s, the first post-communist gangsters emerged and mafia became the major problem in the country. Most of the law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges had no experience of investigating, trying, or sentencing criminals. Many officials lacked even basic knowledge of the leading criminal operators in their communities. Between 1994–1998, during the government of Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, organised crime became well established and it penetrated the highest political positions. One of the major crime events was kidnapping of Slovak president's son Michal Kováč Jr. in 1995, organised by Slovak intelligence service and the government of Vladimír Mečiar. Processes of privatization in Slovakia began, often criticized for lack of transparency and corruption. Hundreds of state assets came into private hands to only a selected group of businessmen. In the 1990s, Slovakia had central Europe's worst-performing economy, marked by high unemployment rates and inflation with least democratic government. Madeleine Albright, the U.S. secretary of state, referred to it as "a black hole in the heart of Europe". This time period in Slovakia is also known as "Wild 90s" ("Divoké 90.roky"). Since March 1998, the country was 14 months without a head of state, when the National Council of Slovakia multiple times failed to elect the new president, which led to the introduction of a direct presidential election in 1999.

After the 1998 parliamentary election, Mikuláš Dzurinda went on to replace Vladimír Mečiar as Prime Minister, and during two successive governments between 1998–2006, relaunched the transformation processes that had stalled under Mečiar. The country embarked on a reformist course that saw the introduction of a flat tax, liberalisation of the labour market, deregulation of business, and partial privatization of social security. Government of Mikuláš Dzurinda led Slovakia into OECD, NATO and the European Union. In 1999, the second President of Slovakia became Rudolf Schuster, first directly-elected president.

2000s

Slovakia became a member of OECD on 14 December 2000, NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger" in the 2000s as achieved, on average, roughly 6% per capita GDP growth each year from 2000 to 2008. Ivan Gašparovič became the third president of Slovakia in 2004 and in 2009 became the first and the only Slovak re-elected president.

In 2006, Robert Fico became Prime Minister, during his first government, Slovakia joined the Schengen area on 21 December 2007, allowing visa free travel and on 1 January 2009 adopted the Euro as its national currency at 30.1260 korunas to the euro. The Slovak economy was involved in a major slowdown during the 2008 financial crisis, experiencing the deepest recession in history. At the beginning of 2009, Slovakia faced energy crisis and declared a state of emergency, after Russia cut gas supplies to Europe via Ukrainian pipelines as part of a price dispute with Ukraine.

2010s

Between 2010–2012, Slovak government was led by first female Prime Minister Iveta Radičová. Her government lasted only two years, Radičová combined the vote on the strengthening of the European Financial Stability Facility – a key anti-crisis mechanism in the eurozone – with a vote of confidence for her cabinet. Slovak parliament rejected the EFSF, which led to the collapse of the government.

In 2012, Robert Fico became second time Prime Minister when his political party Direction – Social Democracy won election and collected 83 of 150 seats in National Council, becoming the first single party to win a clear majority in the Slovak parliament since the fall of communism. In 2014, Andrej Kiska became the fourth President of Slovakia. For the first time was elected as President entrepreneur and first-time politician. International crisis impacted Slovak politics and quickly started dominating the country's political life and media coverage, such as Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in neighbouring Ukraine in 2014 or European migrant crisis in 2015.

After the parliamentary election in 2016, Robert Fico became third time Prime Minister, making him longest-serving prime minister in Slovak history, if the years are counted cumulatively. Third term of Fico's government was characterised by social and political turmoil. On 21 February 2018, young Slovak investigative journalist Ján Kuciak and his fiancée, were killed in their home in Veľká Mača. Thousands of people protested in streets across Slovakia for independent investigation of journalist's murder and a 'trustworthy' government in largest demonstrations in the country since the Velvet Revolution. Due to protests, Robert Fico resigned, and the government continued under a new Prime Minister Peter Pellegrini. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became the fifth President of Slovakia, first female president.

2020s

After the parliamentary election in 2020, Igor Matovič became the new Prime Minister of Slovakia. Matovič and his government, with little to no previous government experience, was dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 recession, during which more than 21,000 people died in Slovakia between 2020–2023, the worst death toll in the country since the end of World War II. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Slovak economy faced the worst economic crisis since the 2008 financial crisis and fell into recession. At the beginning of 2021, Matovič signed an agreement to acquire 2 million doses of Russia's Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine, which has not been cleared by European Union regulators. Matovič orchestrated the deal despite disagreement among his coalition partners, which led to a government crisis and his resignation. The government continued under a new Prime Minister Eduard Heger. Heger and his government faced many challenges, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Russian invasion in neighbouring Ukraine, Ukrainian refugee crisis, Global energy crisis and Inflation surge. After a strong economic recovery in 2021, growth slowed down markedly in 2022 and 2023 as a result of the consequences of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, notably the subsequent EU sanctions on Russia and Global energy crisis. Slovakia became one of Ukraine's largest donors of military aid during Heger's government in 2022 and 2023. Government crisis in Slovakia continued with various disputes in the coalition. At the end of 2022, Heger's government collapsed, after a lost no-confidence vote in parliament. In 2023, in the interim before the next election, President Zuzana Čaputová appointed the first technocrat government in Slovak history and Ľudovít Ódor became the new Prime Minister for only six months, the third Prime Minister of Slovakia in three years.

After the parliamentary election in 2023, Robert Fico became for the fourth time Prime Minister. The new government halted military aid to Ukraine, while still providing humanitarian aid and electricity supplies. On 15 May 2024, Prime Minister Robert Fico was shot several times and wounded in an assassination attempt. The suspect stated during interrogation that he acted primarily because of the Fico government's opposition to military assistance to Ukraine. In 2024, Peter Pellegrini became the sixth President of Slovakia. Pellegrini is the first Slovak politician to have held all three highest constitutional posts (President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament) in the country. Fourth term of Fico's government is characterized by political instability with fragile coalition, worsening relations with European Union, diplomatic disputes with the closest ally Czech Republic and growing Russian influence. Pro-Russia policies of Slovak government, questioning Slovakia's future in the European Union and NATO, criticism of Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Fico's good relationship with Russian President Vladimir Putin, led to widespread demonstrations across the country. Slovakia fell significantly in the media freedom ranking and corruption ranking. Crisis of democratic society was followed by economic decline, underlined by downgrade rating from credit rating agency Moody's and later Standard & Poor's. In 2025, the government amended constitution to recognize only two genders (male and female), sparking human rights concerns.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Slovakia

See also: Geomorphological division of Slovakia

Slovakia is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The landscape is mostly mountainous, with the Carpathian Mountains covering much of the northern part. Key mountain areas include the Fatra-Tatra Area, such as the Tatra Mountains, Slovak Ore Mountains, and Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, with another lowland in the southeast called the Eastern Slovak Lowland. Forests cover about 41% of the land.

The Tatra Mountains are the highest in the Carpathians, featuring 29 peaks above 2,500 meters. The highest point in Slovakia, Gerlachovský štít, stands at 2,655 meters. The mountain range includes popular spots for hiking and skiing, such as the High Tatras near the Polish border. Slovakia has nine national parks, including Tatra National Park and Low Tatras National Park, which help protect its natural beauty. The country also boasts hundreds of caves, with thirty open to visitors, featuring impressive formations like stalagmites and stalactites. Notable caves include the Dobšiná Ice Cave and Demänovská Cave of Liberty.

Rivers in Slovakia mostly begin in the mountains, with the Váh being the longest at 403 kilometers. Other important rivers include the Danube, Nitra, and Hron. The climate varies from temperate in the south to more continental in the north, with warm summers and cold winters. Spring and autumn bring unpredictable weather, while winter sees snowfall, especially in the mountains. Slovakia is rich in biodiversity, with many plant and animal species, and its forests cover about 44% of the land. The country ensures safe drinking water for all its people, with some of the best-quality tap water in Europe.

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Slovakia and Law of Slovakia

See also: Prime Minister of Slovakia, President of Slovakia, and National Council of the Slovak Republic

Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The president is the head of state, while the prime minister leads the government. The National Council is Slovakia's main law-making body, with members elected for four-year terms.

Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004. It also became part of the Schengen Area in 2007 and adopted the euro in 2009. The country maintains strong ties with the United States and many European nations.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Slovakia

See also: Minister of Foreign and European Affairs and List of diplomatic missions of Slovakia

Slovakia's Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs manages the country's international relationships. Slovakia is a member of many global organizations, including the United Nations, NATO, and the European Union. Slovak citizens can travel freely to many countries around the world.

Military

Main article: Slovak Armed Forces

See also: Slovak Air Force

The president serves as the commander-in-chief of Slovakia's armed forces. Slovakia joined NATO in 2004 and has since contributed troops to international peace operations. The military includes ground forces, air forces, and support units.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Slovakia

Human rights are protected in Slovakia by its constitution and international agreements. The country generally respects these rights, though challenges remain in areas such as discrimination and corruption.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Slovakia, Districts of Slovakia, and List of municipalities and towns in Slovakia

Slovakia is divided into eight regions, each named after its main city. These regions are further split into districts and municipalities. The western regions, including Bratislava, are wealthier than those in the east.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Slovakia

See also: Slovak euro coins

Slovakia has a high-income, developed economy. In 2026, with a population of only 5 million, it ranked as the 47th richest country with a per capita gross domestic product based on purchasing power parity of $49,376, and the 58th largest economy in the world with a GDP of $167,730 billion. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.

The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of the EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.

The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well-educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Slovakia adopted the euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the eurozone.

Industry

See also: Automotive industry in Slovakia

Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the services sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,080,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2023 alone. There are currently four automobile assembly plants, with a fifth under construction.

Energy

Main article: Energy in Slovakia

Slovakia is self-sufficient in electricity production following the launch of the third unit of the Mochovce nuclear power plant in 2023. Nuclear energy accounted for 54% of total electricity production, followed by hydro power energy, natural gas, coal, biofuel and solar energy.

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Slovakia

There are four main motorways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction. Slovakia has three international airports. Bratislava Airport is the main and largest international airport. Košice International Airport is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Slovakia

See also: List of castles in Slovakia and List of World Heritage Sites in Slovakia

Tourism is one of the main sectors of the Slovakia's economy. Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. The most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle.

Science

The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. In 1999, astronaut Ivan Bella, became the first and only Slovak citizen to fly in space. Slovakia became European Space Agency associate member state in 2022. In 2024, the country signed the Artemis Accords with NASA. Slovakia was ranked 47th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Slovakia

Further information: List of Slovaks

Slovakia has a population of over 5.4 million people. Most people are Slovaks, but there are also Hungarians, Roma, Czechs, Rusyns, and others living there. The country is not very crowded, with about 110 people living in each square kilometer.

Slovak is the official language, but Hungarian and Rusyn are also used in some areas. Many people in Slovakia learn foreign languages, with Czech being the most common. The country has a mix of religious beliefs, including Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, and others, as well as people who do not follow any religion. Education is important in Slovakia, with children going to school from age 6 to 16. After primary school, students can attend secondary school and then go to university if they choose.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Slovakia

Folk tradition has deep roots in Slovakia and is shown in literature, music, dance, and architecture. A great example is the Slovak national anthem, "Nad Tatrou sa blýska", which uses a tune from the folk song "Kopala studienku". The Východná Folklore Festival in Východná is the oldest and largest festival in the country, where many groups perform traditional dances and songs.

Art in Slovakia includes painting, drawing, sculpture, and more. The Slovak National Gallery, founded in 1948, has two main displays in Bratislava. Other important art places include the Bratislava City Gallery and the Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art.

Traditional Slovak food uses pork, poultry, potatoes, and cabbage. A popular dish is bryndzové halušky, made with potato dough and bryndza cheese. Wine and beer are also enjoyed by many people.

Sport is very popular in Slovakia. Ice hockey and football are the most liked sports. The Slovak ice hockey team has won medals in the Ice Hockey World Championships and has competed in the Olympic games. Football has many players, and the national team has qualified for big tournaments like the FIFA World Cup and the UEFA Euro.