Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a famous prehistoric monument located on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. It consists of large standing stones arranged in a circle, with horizontal stones on top, forming a unique structure. Inside the circle are smaller stones and a special arrangement called a trilithon. The whole monument is aligned with the sunrise on the summer solstice and the sunset on the winter solstice, showing that its builders had a deep understanding of the sun's movements.

The stones of Stonehenge were put in place between about 3100 BC and 1600 BC, with the large sarsen stones placed around 2600 BC to 2400 BC. Radiocarbon dating shows that some of the smaller bluestones were positioned between 2400 and 2200 BC. Stonehenge may have been used as a burial place from very early on, with human bones found dating back to around 3000 BC.

Today, Stonehenge is one of the most famous landmarks in the United Kingdom and is considered a British cultural icon. It has been protected by law since 1882 and was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. The site is owned by the Crown Estate and managed by English Heritage, with the surrounding land cared for by the National Trust.

Etymology

The name Stonehenge may come from old words meaning "stone" and "hanging" because the stones appear to be suspended in the air. The word "henge" is now used for a special kind of ancient circular earthwork.

Early history

Stonehenge was used for burial from its beginning, showing its importance as a place connected to death and memory. It went through many changes over about 1,500 years, with people adding stones and structures in different phases.

Before Stonehenge, the land was wooded, but people began clearing trees and building structures around 3500 BC. The first part of Stonehenge was a circular ditch and bank made of chalk, with bones of deer and oxen placed inside. Later, standing stones were added, including smaller bluestones from Wales. Some of these stones may have been used as markers for graves.

During later phases, huge sarsen stones were brought from nearby quarries and arranged in circles and shapes called trilithons. These stones were carefully shaped and fitted together. Smaller bluestones were also rearranged inside the larger stone circles. Over time, the stones were adjusted and moved, showing that people continued to care for and change the monument for many centuries.

Function and construction

Main article: Theories about Stonehenge

See also: Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge

Stonehenge was built by people who left no written records, so many details about how and why it was created are still debated. Some think it may have been used to track important dates like solstices, when the sun is at its farthest or closest point in the sky. Others believe it was a special place for healing or for honoring ancestors.

The stones were likely moved using simple tools and methods, such as rolling them on logs or pulling them on a sleigh. Some of the stones came from places far away, showing that people worked together over long distances to build this amazing structure.

Stonehenge-builders and DNA studies

See also: Neolithic Europe, Chalcolithic Europe, and Genetic history of Europe

Studies of DNA from ancient people in Britain show that the builders of the early Stonehenge structures were closely related to people from Iberia and Central Europe. These early farmers had ancestry from people who originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and later mixed with hunter-gatherers from western Europe. They arrived in Britain around 4,000 BC, bringing new ways of living that mixed with local traditions.

Later, around 2,600–2,400 BC, new groups known as the Bell Beaker people arrived from Europe. These people had different ancestries and eventually became the majority in Britain, changing the population significantly.

Roman era

In 1979, researchers used new methods to show that the idea of the Roman army trying to destroy Stonehenge as a place for druidic resistance was not true. They found that stone pieces were actually from the original builders or from the Middle Bronze Age.

In 2008, excavations showed that during the Roman era, Stonehenge was an important place for rituals or ceremonies. Findings included coins, pottery, and animal bones, suggesting continued activity there. A special trench with a bluestone slab and a Roman coin was thought to be a grave.

Medieval period

In 1926, a skeleton of a man aged between 28 and 32 was found inside Stonehenge near a stone called Y-Hole 9. Tests showed he lived between 600 and 690 AD. Some experts think this spot might have been important during the Middle Ages because of what they found nearby. However, others believe the name "henge" comes from the shape of the stone structures, not from any events that might have happened there.

Modern history

Archaeological research and restoration have shaped our understanding of Stonehenge over the centuries. Early researchers like Inigo Jones and John Aubrey began studying the site in the 1600s, noting features like the Aubrey holes. By the 1700s, John Wood, the Elder created detailed plans before some stones fell. In the 1800s, William Cunnington and others excavated nearby barrows, finding artifacts now displayed at the Wiltshire Museum.

Major restorations began in 1901, led by William Gowland, who straightened a dangerous stone and uncovered more about how the stones were erected. Further excavations in the 20th century, such as those by Richard J. C. Atkinson and others, revealed carved items on the stones and helped outline Stonehenge's construction phases. Recent projects, like the Stonehenge Riverside Project, explore the landscape's relationship to the monument, uncovering new insights into its history and use.