Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was the name for the part of Spain ruled by Muslims during the Middle Ages. It started in 711 and lasted until 1492. At its largest, it covered most of Spain and a small part of France called Septimania. Over time, different Muslim groups ruled this area, including the Umayyads, the Emirate of Córdoba, and the Caliphate of Córdoba.

The city of Córdoba became very important under the Caliphate of Córdoba, around the year 1000. It was a center for learning and trade. Many smart people from al-Andalus made discoveries in science, medicine, and farming. These ideas helped both the Muslim world and Europe.

Al-Andalus often had conflicts with the Christian kingdoms in northern Spain. After the Umayyad caliphate ended, al-Andalus split into smaller states called taifas. Later, bigger Muslim empires like the Almoravids and Almohads took control. Finally, the Christian kingdoms from the north took over most of Spain. The last Muslim state, the Emirate of Granada, surrendered in 1492 to the Catholic Monarchs.

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Andalusia

The name al-Andalus first appeared on coins in 716. These coins, called dinars, had writing in both Latin and Arabic. People once thought the name came from the word for the Vandals, but now there are other ideas. Some think it might be related to the name Atlantis, while others think it could come from old Gothic or pre-Roman words.

History

See also: Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula

Province of the Umayyad Caliphate

Main article: Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

In 711, commander Tariq ibn-Ziyad landed at Gibraltar. He won a big battle against King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq and governor Musa ibn Nusayr of Ifriqiya brought most of the Visigothic Kingdom under Muslim control. They moved into Septimania in southern France.

Most of the Iberian Peninsula became part of the Umayyad Empire, called al-Andalus. It was a province led by the emir of Kairouan for a few years, not the Caliph in Damascus. The capital was Córdoba. Many Muslim settlers came.

Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba

Main article: Emirate of Córdoba

Establishment

In 755, the Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I came to Spain after being in danger. He defeated local leaders and took control of Córdoba in 756, making it the capital of the new emirate. He ruled for many years and built important buildings like the Mosque of Córdoba.

Rule

Abd al Rahman's rule was peaceful at first. He was followed by his son Hisham I, then his grandson Al-Hakam I. Later rulers had more problems, but the emirate grew stronger under leaders like Abd al-Rahman II. Science and art grew.

Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba

Main article: Caliphate of Córdoba

The Caliphate of Córdoba is known as a golden age. Córdoba became a big and rich city, a center for learning, art, and trade. Important thinkers and doctors lived there, and their ideas spread to Europe.

Taifas period

Main article: Taifa

The Caliphate split into smaller states called taifas after a civil war. These small states often fought each other and paid tribute to Christian kingdoms. Some, like the Taifa of Seville, became powerful for a time.

Almoravids and Almohads

Further information: Almoravid dynasty and Almohad Caliphate

The Almoravids from Africa helped the taifa states at first but later took control of most of al-Andalus. The Almohads came after and also ruled for a time. Christian kingdoms grew stronger and took back more land.

Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath

Main article: Emirate of Granada

The last part of al-Andalus was the Emirate of Granada, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. It lasted from 1230 until 1492 when it was taken over by the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand. Many Muslims and Jews left or were forced to change their religion.

Science

In al-Andalus, many people studied science, especially in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and farming. Scholars worked on many subjects, often mixing ideas from different areas. The earliest known scientific work began during the rule of Abd ar-Rahman II. Later, scientists kept learning and sharing knowledge.

Medicine

Many doctors and medical teachers lived in al-Andalus. One famous doctor, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, wrote a big book about medical knowledge. His book included important drawings of tools doctors used. Another doctor, Ibn al-Baytar, wrote a book about plants and their uses in medicine. The ibn Zuhr family was also well-known for their work in health and food.

Astronomy

Some of the best astronomers in al-Andalus were Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd, and Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji. They studied the stars and tried to improve older ideas about how the sky worked. They used ideas from Aristotle. Maslama al-Majriti helped translate and explain important books about the stars. Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali improved tables that help predict where stars and planets would be.

Agronomy

People in al-Andalus also made advances in farming. They built new ways to bring water to fields, which helped grow more food. One writer, Ibn al-'Awwam, wrote a book with many tips about farming and taking care of plants. They also grew new fruits, like pomegranates, which became famous in Granada.

Culture

Society

See also: Social and cultural exchange in al-Andalus, La Convivencia, Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, and Mozarabs

The society of al-Andalus had three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims included Arabs and Berbers. The Arab elite often saw non-Arab Muslims as less equal.

People were ranked by ethnicity, with Arabs at the top, followed by Berbers, Muladies, Mozarabes, and Jews. Each group lived in separate parts of cities. In the 10th century, many Christians converted to Islam, and muladies became the majority of Muslims.^{[citation needed]} The Muwalladun spoke local dialects that evolved into Andalusi Arabic. By 1100, Muslims made up most of the population.

Jews worked as tax collectors, in trade, or as doctors. By the end of the 15th century, there were about 50,000 Jews in Granada and 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.

Non-Muslims paid a special tax called "Jizya". They were protected but had some limits.

Jews made up more than five per cent of the population. Al-Andalus was an important centre for Jewish life and learning during the early Middle Ages.

The longest peaceful time began after 912, during the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II. Jews prospered by working for the Caliphate of Córdoba, studying sciences, and trading in silk and slaves.

Many ethnicities and religions lived together in al-Andalus and helped it become a place of learning.

Many native people converted to Islam. By 1000, most people in Iberia were Muslim. There were also Sub-Saharan Africans who served as soldiers and slaves.

In the 11th century, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system reached Europe through al-Andalus. This brought new ideas and tools like the astrolabe.

From the start, the Umayyads wanted Córdoba to be a centre of learning, like Baghdad.

Language

Multilingualism, language contact, and code-switching were common in al-Andalus. People spoke Arabic, Andalusi Arabic, Andalusi Romance, Latin, Hebrew, and Berber.

At first, most people spoke Romance dialects. These are called Andalusi Romance or Mozarabic. We know little about these dialects.

Arabic arrived in 711 and became the language of government and literature. By the end of the 9th century, many Christians and Jews wrote in Arabic. The vernacular Arabic spoken in al-Andalus was influenced by Romance languages.

The literary traditions of Hebrew grew through contact with Arabic.

Berber languages were important during Berber rule, especially under the Almoravids and Almohads.

Literature and poetry

Main article: Literature of al-Andalus

Al-Andalus had many scholars and works of literature from the eighth to fifteenth centuries. Well-known scholars like Ibn Rushd, Ibn Hazm, and Ibn Arabi are remembered differently in various cultures.

Poetry was very important. Traditional Arabic poetry forms were used, and a new form called the muwaššaḥ developed. This had a complex rhyme scheme and sometimes included words from other languages. Andalusi strophic poetry influenced Western Europe and the wider Muslim world.

Rithā' al-Andalus is a famous type of poem that mourned the loss of Andalusi lands.

Music

Main article: Andalusi classical music

The music of al-Andalus was part of a rich tradition. Poets and musicians like Ziryaba helped shape Andalusi music. Forms like the muwashshah, the nawba, and the _zajal _ were important.

Philosophy

Al-Andalus philosophy

See also: Early Islamic philosophy and Sufism in al-Andalus

The historian Said al-Andalus wrote that Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III collected books and supported scholars. Later, Al-Hakam II built a university and libraries in Córdoba. Córdoba became a leading centre for medicine and philosophy.

When Hisham II took power, real control went to al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir. He disapproved of certain sciences and had many books burned. After his death in 1002, interest in philosophy grew again. Scholars like Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun and Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti emerged.

The philosopher Averroes started the Averroism school of thought. Another important philosopher was Ibn Tufail.

Jewish philosophy and culture

Main article: Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

As Jewish learning in Babylonia faded, al-Andalus became a centre for Jewish thought. Poets and thinkers like Judah Halevi and Dunash ben Labrat lived there. The area was important for Jewish philosophy. The famous thinker Maimonides came from a family that fled persecution by the Almohads.

In al-Andalus, Jews were important in medicine. Hasdai ibn Shaprut worked on translating medical texts. Jonah ibn Janah wrote about medicine, and Maimonides later used these ideas.

Art and architecture

Main articles: Moorish architecture and Mudéjar art

In Córdoba, Abd ar-Rahman I built the Great Mosque of Córdoba in 785. It had a large hall with columns and arches, a special prayer area, and a tower that later became a bell tower.^{: 17–21, 61–79}  Abd ar-Rahman III started building Madinat al-Zahra, a grand palace city.^: 51–58  The Umayyads also rebuilt a bridge in Córdoba, and the Almohads added the Calahorra Tower.^{: 39, 45, 101, 137}  The Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo is a well-preserved small mosque.^: 79 

The workshops of the Caliphate made luxury items for the court and as gifts. Famous items include ivory boxes with detailed carvings.

During the Taifas period, art and culture flourished. The Aljaferia Palace in Zaragoza is a key example, with beautiful arches and decorations. Other cities also built important palaces and fortresses.

In Seville, the Almohads built the Great Mosque of Seville, later turned into the Cathedral of Seville. Its tower is now the Giralda. Almohad architecture used new designs like the multifoil arch and the sebka motif.

Artists and intellectuals moved to Granada in the 13th century. The Alhambra and the Generalife show the culture and skill of the last Muslim rulers. These buildings have courtyards, gardens, and detailed tile work and carvings. Nasrid architecture mixed earlier styles with its own unique design.

Even after Muslim rule ended, Andalusi style continued under Christian rulers. This is known as the Mudéjar style. Examples include churches in Toledo and buildings in Aragon like Zaragoza and Teruel.^{: 361–368}  The Alcázar of Seville was expanded with Moorish-style sections. Some Jewish synagogues built under Christian rule also used this style.

Food and agriculture

Main articles: Arab Agricultural Revolution, Mediterranean cuisine, and Qanat

Farming with irrigation and imports from the Middle East made the areas around Andalusi cities very advanced. New crops like sugarcane, rice, cotton, and oranges were introduced. The Arabs kept growing olives and pomegranates.

Arabic words influenced Spanish food terms. The Palmeral of Elche is a large palm grove created by the Arabs.

The Arabs expanded Roman irrigation systems and brought new methods from the Persianate world, like the acequia. These irrigation channels are still found in Andalusia.

The sweet treat alfajor originated in al-Andalus.

Homosexuality and pederasty

Slavery

Main article: Slavery in al-Andalus

Slavery existed in both Muslim al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms. People of the same religion were not enslaved. Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, and Christians and others were enslaved in al-Andalus.

The Moors brought Christian slaves from Spain and Eastern Europe. These slaves worked in various roles, including in palaces.

Slave concubines in harems were educated and sometimes respected for their skills. Those who had children with their masters gained protection and freedom after the master's death.

Omitting sensitive content

The article contains sections that are not suitable for young readers. These include discussions about certain adult behaviors and historical practices that could be upsetting. Therefore, these parts have been left out. The rest of the article talks about the society, language, stories, music, ideas, art, buildings, and food of al-Andalus, which are interesting and appropriate for young readers to learn about.

Legacy

See also: Islamic Golden Age, Moorish architecture, and Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

When Christian kingdoms like Leon and Castile took control of cities in al-Andalus, leaders such as Alfonso X of Castile started translating many books from those cities into Latin. These books had ideas from Ancient Greece and new thoughts from the Islamic Golden Age. Together with events like the Crusades and the Fall of Constantinople, which brought Greek scholars to the west, these translations helped start the Renaissance. Great thinkers like Averroes and Al-Zahrawi shared ideas that still matter today.

Al-Andalus also left us with beautiful buildings. Some of the best examples of architecture from that time can still be seen today, such as the Cathedral of Córdoba, the Alhambra, and the Giralda.