Ancient Egyptian literature

Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination. It is the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature in the world, along with Sumerian literature.

Writing in ancient Egypt, using both hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts, began in the late 4th millennium BC during predynastic Egypt. By the Old Kingdom, people wrote funerary texts, epistles, hymns, and autobiographical stories.

In the early Middle Kingdom, narrative stories were first created. This was a big change because of new educated scribes, more people learning to read, and more books being available.

During the New Kingdom, writers used Middle Egyptian for important texts. Popular stories from this time include the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant. Ancient Egyptian books were written on many different things, like papyrus scrolls, pieces of limestone or ceramic called ostraca, wooden boards, big stone buildings, and even coffins.

Scripts, media, and languages

Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic

Main article: Writing in ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians had three ways to write: Hieroglyphs, Hieratic, and later Demotic. Hieroglyphs were used for big stone carvings and special writings. Hieratic was a quicker way to write on paper made from plants. It was used for everyday things like letters. Later, Demotic became the common way to write for daily use, while hieratic was mostly used by priests. By the time of the Greeks, all three ways of writing were used together.

By around 3100 BC, Egyptian hieroglyphs and hieratic were already being used. Hieroglyphs were pictures of things in nature, like animals and objects. The Egyptians called hieroglyphs "words of god" and used them for important writings.

Writing implements and materials

People in ancient Egypt wrote on different things. They used a special pen made from reeds to write with black or red paint. They wrote on pieces of paper made from a plant called papyrus, as well as on small pieces of ceramic or limestone called ostraca. Papyrus paper was not always easy to get, so people also used ostraca and limestone for shorter writings. Later, during the time of the Romans, they started using a thicker reed pen and different kinds of ink.

Preservation of written material

Tombs underground in the desert were great places to keep papyrus papers safe. Many papers about life after death found in tombs are still in good shape. Most towns in Egypt were near the Nile River, where it was too wet to keep papers for long. But in dry desert towns, more papers have been found. Writings on stone and ceramic could be lost if the stone was reused for buildings or if the ceramic was not kept in a dry place.

Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language

Writing began in Egypt around 2600 BC. At first, it was only used for short names. Later, it grew into a way to write full sentences. The language changed over time. First came Old Egyptian, then Middle Egyptian, and later Late Egyptian. Late Egyptian turned into Demotic by around 700 BC. Demotic was used until it slowly changed into Coptic, the language used when Christianity spread in Egypt. Hieratic was used alongside hieroglyphs for writing in Old and Middle Egyptian and became the main way to write Late Egyptian. Middle Egyptian became a special way of writing used for important literature.

Literary functions: social, religious and educational

Reading and writing were important skills in ancient Egypt, especially for people who worked for the government. Scribes, who knew how to read and write, helped with many jobs, like planning big projects and keeping records. They were respected and important in society.

Literature also had religious uses. Special texts were written to help people after they died, with spells and hymns to give comfort. Some stories and teachings were read aloud to share knowledge and wisdom with others.

Dating, setting, and authorship

Ancient Egyptian literature, called "belles-lettres" or "beautiful writing", began during the Middle Kingdom, around the early Twelfth dynasty. Before this, texts were mostly for religious use or daily records. During the Middle Kingdom, people started writing stories for fun and to make others think. Some of these stories may have started as tales told aloud.

It is hard to know exactly when a text was written because handwriting changed over time, and writers sometimes copied older styles. Stories were often set in the past, either in a "golden age" or in hard times, which makes it tricky to guess when they were really written. How a story was told was often more important than when it happened.

Most of these stories were not really written by famous people, even though they sometimes said they were. Only a few writings, like teachings and speeches, were sometimes said to be from real authors. Private letters were often known to be from the person who wrote them, especially if they were used in court. Special letters from the pharaoh were sometimes carved in stone to show the king's importance.

Literary genres and subjects

Modern Egyptologists group Egyptian books into types, such as "laments" and stories. The ancient Egyptians mostly knew the "teaching" type. These teachings gave good advice and stories to help and entertain people.

Teaching books used words like "to know" and "to teach." They often began with "the instruction of X made for Y," where X was a wise or royal person giving advice to a son. These books mixed stories with lessons.

Story tales are made-up adventures with characters. Some famous tales are The Eloquent Peasant and Story of Sinuhe. These stories mixed different kinds of writing, like poetry and everyday speech.

Prophetic books and laments talked about changes in society and the world. They often used a "then-now" way to show differences between the past and present. These writings sometimes gave hope for a better future.

Poems and hymns celebrated kings, gods, and important places like the Nile. Funerary poems helped protect the souls of kings in the afterlife. Songs and hymns were also written for festivals and special events.

Letters and messages were used to talk over long distances. Schoolboys learned writing by copying model letters, which included greetings and polite words. Private letters from everyday people have also survived, showing how families and friends kept in touch.

Biographical texts told the stories of important people, focusing on their achievements and jobs in society. These writings appeared on tomb walls and monuments, celebrating the lives of officials and leaders.

Legacy, translation and interpretation

Further information: Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts

See also: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian

After the Copts turned to Christianity, their Coptic literature became different from older Egyptian and Hellenistic traditions. Some experts think ancient Egyptian stories may have influenced Greek and Arabic literature. One Egyptian story, The Taking of Joppa, is about soldiers hiding in baskets to capture a city. This story is similar to how the Mycenaean Greeks entered Troy in the Trojan Horse. The Egyptian tale also shares ideas with the Arabic story of Ali Baba in One Thousand and One Nights. Some believe the story of Sinbad the Sailor may have been inspired by an Egyptian story called Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor.

The last known hieroglyphic inscription was carved in a temple of Philae in 394 AD. In the 4th century AD, an Egyptian writer named Horapollo wrote about many Egyptian symbols. His work was lost until the 15th century. In the 17th century, a European scholar named Athanasius Kircher tried to understand hieroglyphs using symbols.

In 1799, French soldiers found the Rosetta Stone, which had the same message in three languages. This helped scholars learn to read hieroglyphs. Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young made big discoveries in the 1820s. By 1832, people could understand most Egyptian texts. The first full translations were done by Emmanuel de Rougé in 1856.

Before the 1970s, many experts thought Egyptian literature was shaped by the society of the time. Since then, more scholars have studied these stories in new ways, looking at the culture and history behind them. This helps us learn more about ancient Egyptian writing.