Ashoka

Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, was a powerful emperor who ruled a large part of the Indian subcontinent from around 268 BCE until he died. He was the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. His empire stretched from present-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh, with its capital at Pataliputra.

Ashoka became well-known for supporting Buddhism. After a difficult war, he changed his ways and began teaching people to live with kindness and respect. He built many important Buddhist places called stupas, helped Buddhist teachers share their ideas, and gave money to those who followed Buddhism.

Today, Ashoka is remembered as one of India’s greatest leaders. Symbols from his time, like the Lion Capital and the Ashoka Chakra, are important parts of modern India. His story shows how one person can choose a better path, even after facing tough times.

Sources of information

Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions, other writings that mention him, and ancient books, especially Buddhist texts. These sources sometimes disagree, but historians try to understand what they mean together.

Ashoka's inscriptions are the oldest writings that show how powerful rulers presented themselves in the Indian subcontinent. These writings mostly talk about dhamma, which means good behavior and rules. They don't tell much about the Maurya government or daily life. Even when they talk about dhamma, we can't believe everything they say completely. Some experts think Ashoka was sharing messages to make himself and his rule look good, not to tell exact facts.

Other writings also mention Ashoka. For example, a rock writing from the 2nd century talks about him. Some writings found in places like Sirkap might also be about him, but we are not sure. Some copper plates and other writings are sometimes said to be from Ashoka's time, but not everyone agrees.

Many stories about Ashoka come from Buddhist legends. These stories show him as a great and perfect emperor. But these stories were written much later by Buddhist writers who wanted to show how their beliefs changed Ashoka. Because of this, we need to be careful when using these stories as history. Some modern experts think these stories are just myths, while others think some parts might be true.

These Buddhist legends exist in many languages, including Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhala, Thai, Lao, and Khotanese. The stories come from two main groups. The North Indian group, written in Sanskrit, includes books like Divyavadana and Chinese sources. The Sri Lankan group, written in Pali, includes books like Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.

These two groups of stories are different in many ways. For example, the Sri Lankan stories focus on Ashoka meeting together with Buddhist leaders and sending his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka. The North Indian stories do not mention these events but talk about other things, like a story about another son named Kunala.

Other pieces of evidence, like coins, statues, and archaeology, also help us learn about Ashoka. His name appears in lists of Mauryan emperors in some old Indian books called Puranas, but these books do not give more details because their writers were not supported by the Mauryan rulers. Other books, like the Arthashastra and Indica by Megasthenes, give general information about the Maurya time, but they are not exact records of Ashoka's rule. The Arthashastra talks about an ideal state, not real history, and when it was written is debated. The Indica is a lost book, and only parts of it remain in later writings.

A book from the 12th century called Rajatarangini talks about a Kashmiri king named Ashoka who built several stupas. Some experts think this king is the same as the Maurya emperor Ashoka, but others disagree.

Names and titles

Ashoka had several names and titles. One name was "Asoka," meaning "without sorrow." His mother chose this name because she was happy when he was born. He was also called "Priyadasi," meaning "he who regards amiably." Another title was "Devanampiya," meaning "Beloved of the Gods." These titles helped people know and respect him as their ruler.

Date

We do not know the exact date Ashoka was born because ancient Indian texts did not record such details. We know he lived in the 3rd century BCE. His writings mention several rulers from that time, like Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Antigonus II Gonatas, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth). From this, we believe Ashoka was born around 304 BCE and became king around 268 BCE.

Ancestry

Ashoka did not write about his family, but other old stories do. They tell us that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara. His grandfather was Chandragupta, who started the empire. Some stories also say he was linked to older kings like Bimbisara.

These stories also talk about Ashoka's mother. She was said to be the daughter of a Brahmin from Champa and was meant to marry a king. She later became the chief empress of Bindusara. Different stories give her different names.

As a prince

Ashoka was probably born in the city of Pataliputra. Excavations in central areas of the modern city of Patna have uncovered remains from around that time.

Ashoka's own writings do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from stories written hundreds of years after him. While these stories include fanciful details, they also contain some plausible historical information about Ashoka's time.

According to one such story, when Ashoka was young, his father did not like him because of his appearance. His father asked a wise man to decide which of his sons would be the next emperor. Ashoka was nervous to meet his father, but his mother encouraged him to go. When the wise man saw Ashoka, he realized that Ashoka would become the next emperor. To avoid upsetting Ashoka's father, the wise man did not say this directly. Instead, he said the next king would be the one with the best mount, seat, drink, vessel, and food; each time, Ashoka said he met the criterion. Later, the wise man told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor.

Some stories say that Ashoka's father sent him to important places, such as to deal with a problem in Takshashila or to govern Ujjain. This suggests that despite his appearance, Ashoka's father valued his other qualities. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka far away to keep him from the capital city.

Rebellion at Taxila

According to one story, Ashoka's father sent him to the city of Takshashila (present-day Bhir Mound in Pakistan) to deal with people who were unhappy with their leaders. This story is not told in some other traditions, which say Ashoka's father sent him to govern Ujjain instead. Two other ancient texts say Ashoka was made a ruler in a place called Gandhara, where Takshashila was located, not Ujjain.

The story says Ashoka's father gave him an army with cavalry, elephants, chariots, and infantry but no weapons. Ashoka said weapons would appear if he was meant to be emperor, and then, the weapons came from the ground and gave themselves to his army. When Ashoka arrived in Takshashila, the people told him they were only upset with some bad leaders, not the emperor. Later, Ashoka was also welcomed in the Khasa area, and it was said that he would go on to rule the whole earth.

Takshashila was a rich and important city, and historical evidence shows it was connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by a trade route. However, no surviving records from Ashoka's time mention the rebellion in Takshashila, and none of Ashoka's own writings say he ever visited the city. Some scholars think an old writing found near Taxila that starts with the letters "prydr" might be the name "Priyadarshi", which was Ashoka's title. Another clue may be the name of a large building near Taxila called the Dharmarajika Stupa; the name suggests it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja").

The story about weapons coming from the ground may be a way of making Ashoka seem like a great leader; or it might show that Bindusara — who did not like Ashoka — wanted him to fail in Takshashila.

Viceroy of Ujjain

According to another tradition, Ashoka's father appointed him as the ruler of Avantirastra (present-day Ujjain district), an important area in central India. This is supported by an old writing found in central India that says he visited the place as a prince. Ashoka's own writing mentions a prince ruler at Ujjain during his time, which also supports this tradition.

An old writing seems to mention Ashoka in the area of Ujjain when he was still a prince: "Piyadasi came to this place for a pleasure tour while still a prince..."

Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by several routes in Ashoka's time, and Ashoka's group may have stopped at Rupnath on the way, where a writing from him has been found.

According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha on his way to Ujjain, where he met and fell in love with a woman named Devi, the daughter of a merchant. Some texts say she was from the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha. These Buddhist writings may have added the Shakya connection to link Ashoka's family to Buddha. The writings suggest she was a Buddhist later in life but do not describe her converting to Buddhism. So, she may have already been a Buddhist when she met Ashoka.

One tradition says Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta. According to this tradition, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist leader at age 20, during the sixth year of Ashoka's rule. This would mean Mahinda was 14 when Ashoka became emperor. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20, Ashoka must have become emperor at age 34, which means he served as a ruler for several years before that.

Ascension to the throne

Legends tell us that Ashoka faced challenges when he became emperor. Some stories say he was not the expected heir to the throne. According to one tale, his father Bindusara's oldest son, Susima, faced problems, and ministers secretly supported Ashoka instead, hoping he would become a great ruler known as a chakravartin. When Bindusara became ill, Ashoka was asked to rule temporarily, and soon after, he became emperor.

Different ancient texts give different accounts about what happened next. Some say Ashoka had to deal with his brothers after becoming ruler. The exact number and details are unclear and likely exaggerated. Scholars think these stories might have been shared to show Ashoka's past before he later followed Buddhist teachings.

Date of ascension

Historians debate the exact year Ashoka became emperor. Some texts say it was 218 years after the death of Buddha, while others give different timeframes. If we assume Buddha died in 483 BCE, Ashoka may have started ruling around 265 BCE. Some believe it was 268 BCE instead. The different dates come from varying traditions and records.

Reign before Buddhist influence

Stories about Ashoka before he followed Buddhism describe him as a person who did many harmful things. Some old texts call him "Chandashoka," meaning "Ashoka the fierce," because of his actions before he changed his ways.

These stories include Ashoka giving difficult orders to his helpers. There are also tales of him being upset after women damaged a special tree he liked. Some writings mention a place called "Ashoka's Hell," where prisoners were treated very badly.

Travellers from long ago wrote about seeing places linked to these stories. These tales show how Ashoka's life changed greatly after he began following Buddhism.

Kalinga war and conversion to Buddhism

Main article: Kalinga war

Ashoka, the emperor of Magadha, felt very sad after winning a hard battle in the Kalinga region. The war caused much suffering, and this made him change his ways.

After this, Ashoka began to follow Buddhism, a path that taught peace and kindness.

There are different stories about when Ashoka first learned about Buddhism. Some believe he started before the Kalinga war, while others think he turned to it after seeing the pain the war caused. Ashoka later became a strong follower of Buddhism and worked to spread its teachings. He built many places for Buddhists to gather and learn, showing his deep respect for the religion.

Reign after Buddhist influence

Construction of stupas and temples

Ashoka built many important places for Buddhists called stupas and viharas. Records say he built 84,000 of these places. He collected important Buddhist relics and kept them safe in special boxes. He wanted to build 84,000 stupas all over his land.

Ashoka also built many famous places, including:

• Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
• Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India
• Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
• Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India
• Takshashila University, Takshashila, Pakistan
• Bhir Mound, Takshashila, Pakistan
• Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India

Pillars of Ashoka

Propagation of Dharma

Ashoka visited important Buddhist places and helped people by building places for doctors, planting useful trees, and digging wells. He also sent messages about his beliefs across his land.

Third Buddhist Council

Main article: Third Buddhist council

Buddhist missions

Violence after conversion

Family

Consorts

Ashoka had five consorts. Their names were Devi, Asandhimitra, Padmavati, Karuvaki, and Tishyarakshita. Karuvaki is the only queen named in Ashoka's writings. She was the mother of his son Tivara. Stories say Asandhimitra was Ashoka's main empress. After she died, Tishyarakshita became the chief empress.

Sons

Only Tivara, the son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is named in Ashoka's writings. Other stories mention different sons, such as Kunala and Mahinda. But these stories differ depending on where you hear them.

Daughters

Some stories say Ashoka had daughters. Their names were Sanghamitta and Charumati. Sanghamitta became a nun. Charumati married a leader named Devapala.

Brothers

Ashoka had brothers, including Susima. Different stories tell how these brothers later chose to live quiet, thoughtful lives after learning about life's deeper meaning.

Imperial extent

Ashoka’s empire was very big. It covered most of the Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan in the northwest to parts of Bangladesh in the east. The capital city was called Pataliputra and was in the Magadha region. His empire even reached past the Seleucid Empire, which was ruled by Antiochus II.

Religion and philosophy

Relationship with Buddhism

Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. He called himself a lay follower and a Buddhist. His writings show his strong belief in Buddhism and his visits to important Buddhist places.

Other religions

Ashoka respected all religions. He made sure to treat everyone fairly, no matter what they believed. He even gave gifts to people who were not Buddhist.

Dharma

Ashoka worked hard to spread his idea of "Dharma," which means doing what is right and kind. He built trees and wells for travelers, helped the poor and sick, and stopped unfair punishments. He also cared for animals and made sure they were treated well.

Ashoka’s rules showed his concern for all living things and his wish for peace and happiness for everyone.

Foreign relations

Ashoka sent messengers to share his messages far and wide. These messages spread his ideas of peace and good behavior.

Ashoka wanted to share his beliefs, especially Buddhism, with people living far to the west. He talked about kings in his messages. Some Greeks in Ashoka's lands followed his teachings. Greek people helped spread his ideas about peace and Buddhism. This shows Ashoka wanted to connect with others and share his views on how to live well.

Legends about past lives

Buddhist stories tell of Ashoka’s lives before he became a ruler. One story says that Ashoka, along with two others, were brothers in a past life. They owned a honey shop, and they gave honey to a wise person who needed it to help another sick wise person. Because of this kind act, Ashoka wished to become a great ruler.

Another story says that Ashoka was once a boy named Jaya who gave dirt to the Buddha, thinking it was food. The Buddha accepted it, and Jaya wished to become a king someday. Some later writings say that Ashoka’s helper in his rule was someone who was also a friend in that past life. Other stories suggest that Ashoka’s great rule was because, long ago, he built many statues to honor the Buddha.

Last years

Tissarakkha as the empress

Ashoka's last known writing is from his 26th year as ruler. We mostly know about Ashoka's later life from stories in Buddhist traditions. According to these stories, Ashoka's first wife Asandhamitta passed away in his 29th year, and in his 32nd year, his second wife Tissarakkha became the empress.

Stories from ancient texts tell us that Tissarakkha became upset when she heard Ashoka talking about the Bodhi Tree. She thought "Bodhi" was a person close to Ashoka. Later, she learned the tree was important and fixed things.

These stories also mention that Tissarakkha tried to get close to Ashoka's son Kunala, but he refused her. Different stories tell this part differently, with some saying Ashoka forgave her and others saying a harsher outcome followed.

Death

According to stories from Sri Lanka, Ashoka died around 232 BCE during his 37th year as ruler. Legends say that in his final days, Ashoka wanted to give to Buddhist groups but could not use state money or his own possessions. In the end, he gave them half of a myrobalan fruit as his last gift. These stories show the importance of giving to support the Buddhist faith.

Archaeological remains

Architecture

Ashoka built many structures, and his stone pillars still exist in many places across the Indian subcontinent.

Ashoka is known for using stone to build important buildings in India. Before his time, buildings were likely made from materials that do not last long, such as wood, bamboo, or grass roofs. Ashoka may have changed his palace in Pataliputra by using stone instead of wood. He also used stone to write his important messages, called edicts, and for his pillars that showed symbols important to Buddhism.

Brahmi script

The Brahmi script began to be used in India around the 3rd century BCE. Ashoka used this new way of writing for his messages. Some think the script came from writing used in other lands, while others think it was created in India. This script became very important and many writing styles in South Asia came from it.

Inscriptions and rock-edicts

Ashoka wrote 33 messages on pillars, large rocks, and walls inside caves. These messages are found in places that are now Pakistan and India, and they are the first clear proof of Buddhism. The edicts talk about how Ashoka helped spread Buddhism and share his ideas about good behavior, beliefs, and caring for people and animals.

Before Ashoka, important messages from kings were written on things that could easily break or disappear, like leaves, tree bark, cloth, or wood. Ashoka used stone for his messages, which lasted much longer. He may have gotten the idea from a nearby empire.

Most of Ashoka's messages are written in different local dialects of an ancient language, using the Brahmi script.

Coinage

The symbol called the caduceus is seen on special coins from the Mauryan Empire in India from the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Researchers think this symbol was used by Emperor Ashoka as his own special sign, called a "Mudra". This symbol was not used on coins before the Mauryan Empire, but only during Ashoka’s time, along with other symbols like three hills, a peacock, and a special mark from Taxila.

Symbols

The tops of Ashoka’s pillars were made very carefully and had a special shine. The top of one of Ashoka’s pillars shows a wheel with many spokes, called the Ashoka Chakra. This wheel stands for the teachings of the Buddha and is used on the flag of modern India. The same pillar also has carvings of lions, which appear on India’s official seal.

Modern scholarship

Rediscovery

Ashoka was almost forgotten until the 1800s when James Prinsep helped find historical sources. After studying the Brahmi script, Prinsep linked the name "Priyadasi" from the inscriptions to the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. In 1837, George Turnour found an important manuscript in Sri Lanka called the Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle," connecting Piyadasi with Ashoka.

Since then, many inscriptions have shown that "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" was Ashoka. An important inscription found in Maski directly links Ashoka to his title Devanampriya, meaning "Beloved-of-the-Gods."

Other important researchers included British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who worked on sites like Sanchi and Sarnath, as well as Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, discovered heritage sites such as the Bharhut Stupa and Sarnath. Mortimer Wheeler also uncovered Ashokan sources, especially in Taxila.

Perceptions and historiography

Buddhist writings greatly shape how we understand Ashoka. Early scholars often saw him as a Buddhist king who changed from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and strongly supported Buddhist monasteries. Some scholars question this view. Thapar suggests we should see Ashoka as both a skilled ruler managing a large empire and a person dedicated to improving society through moral values.

Ashoka's own writings, known as edicts, do not say he was Buddhist, but they show support for many religions, including Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism. However, the edicts strongly hint that he followed Buddhism. For example, he criticized rituals and stopped animal sacrifices, which were common in Vedic traditions. Some edicts speak directly to Buddhists, and he called himself an "upasaka". He built stone pillars at important Buddhist places but not for other religions. He used the word "dhamma" in a way that matches Buddhist ideas.

We know much about Ashoka from the many inscriptions he placed on pillars and rocks across his empire. All these writings show him as kind and caring. In the Kalinga rock edits, he speaks to his people as his "children" and says he wants only the best for them.

Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence

The edicts written in the name of Piyadasi or Devanampiya Piyadasi ("Beloved of the Gods and humane") include the Major Rock Edicts and Major Pillar Edicts.

The edicts written in the name of Ashoka or just "Devanampiya" ("Beloved of the Gods"), or both together, include the Minor Rock Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts.

Some scholars suggest that the different types of edicts might have been written by different rulers, possibly Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusara.

Impact of pacifism

After Ashoka died, the Maurya dynasty quickly weakened. The empire broke apart and faced attacks, including from the Bactrian Greeks.

Some historians believe Ashoka's peaceful ways weakened the Maurya empire's military strength. Others, like Thapar, think the effect of his peaceful policies has been overstated.

In art, film and literature

• Ashoka the Great is a story about the emperor, written in Dutch by Wytze Keuning.
• Jaishankar Prasad wrote a poem about Ashoka's thoughts during a hard time.
• Ashoka, a 1922 Indian silent film, was made by Madan Theatres.
• The Nine Unknown, a 1923 novel by Talbot Mundy, tells of a secret group started by Ashoka.
• Samrat Ashok, a 1928 Indian silent film, was directed by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra.
• Ashok Kumar (1941) is an Indian Tamil film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar, starring V. Nagayya as Ashoka.
• Samrat Ashok is a 1947 Indian Hindi film by K.B. Lall.
• Uttar-Priyadarshi, a play by poet Agyeya, shows Ashoka's journey to peace. It was adapted for the stage in 1996 by theatre director Ratan Thiyam.
• In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha published a graphic novel about Ashoka's life.
• In Piers Anthony's space opera novels, the main character admires Ashoka's leadership.
• Samrat Ashok is a 1992 Indian Telugu film about the emperor, directed by and starring N. T. Rama Rao.
• Aśoka is a 2001 Indian historical film directed by Santosh Sivan, with Shah Rukh Khan playing Ashoka.
• In 2002, Mason Jennings released a song called "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP.
• In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle wrote his first novel, The Mahabharata Secret, where Ashoka keeps a secret for India.
• The 2014 novel The Emperor's Riddles by Satyarth Nayak explores Ashoka's life and legends.
• In 2015, Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat, a TV show by Ashok Banker, began airing on Colors TV, with Siddharth Nigam and Mohit Raina playing Ashoka.
• Bharatvarsh is an Indian TV documentary series hosted by Anupam Kher on ABP News, featuring Aham Sharma as Ashoka.
• In 2024, Pracchand Ashok, a TV show by Ekta Kapoor, began airing on Colors TV, with Adnan Khan as Ashoka.
• Civilization includes Ashoka as a leader you can play for India, though later versions of the game use Gandhi instead.