B. F. Skinner

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, inventor, and social philosopher. He worked as the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1948 until he retired in 1974.

Skinner developed behavior analysis, focusing on the philosophy of radical behaviorism. He founded the experimental analysis of behavior. He used operant conditioning to study how actions can be strengthened, looking at the rate of response as an important measure. To do this, he invented the operant conditioning chamber, also called the Skinner box, and a tool called the cumulative recorder. With Charles Ferster, he wrote a book in 1957 titled Schedules of Reinforcement.

Skinner wrote many books and articles. He wrote 21 books and 180 articles. He described his idea for a human community in his 1948 book, Walden Two. He also wrote about how people communicate in Verbal Behavior from 1958. Skinner, along with John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov, helped shape modern behaviorism. In 2002, a survey named him as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century.

## Early life

B. F. Skinner was born in [Susquehanna, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Susquehanna,_Pennsylvania) to Grace and William Skinner. His father was a lawyer. Skinner did not believe in religion after a teacher helped him stop worrying about hell, which his grandmother often talked about.

He had a brother named Edward, who was younger but sadly passed away when he was 16. As a boy, Skinner's best friend was Raphael Miller, called Doc because Doc’s father was a doctor. They liked making gadgets and even set up a way to send messages between their homes, though they usually talked on the phone instead. One summer, they started selling elderberries. They made a clever tool to separate the ripe berries from the unripe ones, using a bent piece of metal.

## Education

B. F. Skinner went to [Hamilton College](/wiki/Hamilton_College) in Clinton, New York, where he wanted to be a writer. He wrote for the school paper and joined the [Lambda Chi Alpha](/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha) fraternity. He earned a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts) in [English literature](/wiki/English_literature) in 1926 and then studied at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University).

At Harvard, a classmate named [Fred S. Keller](/wiki/Fred_S._Keller) encouraged him to study behavior scientifically. This led Skinner to create a simple tool called the [Skinner box](/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber) for small experiments. After graduating, Skinner tried to write a novel but felt he needed more life experience. Learning about [John B. Watson](/wiki/John_B._Watson)'s ideas on behaviorism inspired him to study psychology instead.

## Career

B. F. Skinner got a PhD from Harvard in 1931 and worked there for many years. He later taught at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota) and led the psychology department at [Indiana University](/wiki/Indiana_University_\(Bloomington\)). He returned to Harvard in 1948 as a [tenured professor](/wiki/Academic_tenure), where he worked for the rest of his life. In 1973, he signed the _[Humanist Manifesto II](/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto_II)_.

## Personal life

In 1936, Skinner married Yvonne "Eve" Blue. They had two daughters, [Julie](/wiki/Julie_Vargas) and Deborah. Yvonne passed away in 1997 and is buried in [Mount Auburn Cemetery](/wiki/Mount_Auburn_Cemetery) in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts).

## Death

<figure class="inline-figure"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/BF_Skinner_Grave.JPG/250px-BF_Skinner_Grave.JPG" data-caption="The gravestone of B. F. Skinner and his wife Eve at Mount Auburn Cemetery"><figcaption>The gravestone of B. F. Skinner and his wife Eve at Mount Auburn Cemetery</figcaption></figure>

B. F. Skinner stayed active after he retired in 1974. In 1989, he learned he had a serious health problem called [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia). He passed away on August 18, 1990, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Before this, he received a special award from the [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association) for his work.

## Contributions to psychology

### Behaviorism

Main articles: [Behaviorism](/wiki/Behaviorism) and [Radical behaviorism](/wiki/Radical_behaviorism)

B.F. Skinner studied how our actions change based on what happens around us. He called this idea "[radical behaviorism](/wiki/Radical_behaviorism)." Skinner believed our actions are shaped by past rewards and punishments. He made a tool called the Skinner box to test how animals learn through rewards. His work showed that animals and humans learn in similar ways through consequences. These ideas are still important today in teaching and therapy.

### Foundations of Skinner's behaviorism

Skinner wrote about his ideas in his first book, *[The Behavior of Organisms](/wiki/The_Behavior_of_Organisms)*. He described two main types of behavior. The first type, called respondent behavior, happens when a signal, like a bell, makes us react in a certain way. The second type, called operant behavior, is when we try something and get a reward or avoid something unpleasant, which makes us more likely to do it again. Skinner showed how these ideas could explain many different actions.

### Reinforcement

Main article: [Reinforcement](/wiki/Reinforcement)

Reinforcement is an important part of [behaviorism](/wiki/Behaviorism). It means that actions become stronger when they lead to good results or avoid bad ones. There are two kinds: positive reinforcement, where a good thing happens after the action, and negative reinforcement, where something unpleasant stops after the action. Skinner also studied how often rewards are given and found that this affects how quickly and consistently people or animals repeat behaviors.

### _Verbal Behavior_

Main article: [Verbal Behavior](/wiki/Verbal_Behavior)

Skinner also tried to understand how people learn to talk and use language. He wrote a book called *Verbal Behavior* about this. Some other experts, like [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky), disagreed with his ideas, but Skinner’s work helped many people think differently about how language works.

## Scientific inventions

### Operant conditioning chamber

Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber">Operant conditioning chamber</a>

An [operant conditioning chamber](/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber) (also called a "Skinner box") is a special room used to study how animals behave. Skinner made this box when he was a student at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University). It had a place where rats could press a lever or where pigeons could peck a disk. When the animal did this, it got food, which made it more likely to do the action again. Scientists used this box to study how animals learn from rewards. This helped us learn about how animals, including people, learn and behave.

### Cumulative recorder

The cumulative recorder is a tool that makes a paper record of repeated actions, like a rat pressing a lever. Skinner made it to go with the [operant chamber](/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber). Each time the animal did something, a pen moved across the paper. The slope of the line showed how fast the animal was acting. This was very useful for scientists studying behavior.

### Air crib

<figure class="inline-figure"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg/250px-Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" data-caption="The teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed learning"><figcaption>The teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed learning</figcaption></figure>

The air crib was a special bed Skinner made to keep babies comfortable and healthy. It was like a box with three walls and a glass front. The bed kept the temperature and air just right and made it easier to keep the baby clean. Skinner made it to help his wife and to keep his baby safe and warm where he lived. Some people thought it was strange, but others found it helpful.

### Teaching machine

The [teaching machine](/wiki/Teaching_machine) was a device Skinner made to help people learn. It showed questions one at a time, and when the person answered right, they got a reward. Skinner thought these machines could help students of all ages learn better by letting them practice and get rewards right away. This idea helped shape how we think about teaching and learning today.

### Pigeon-guided missile

Main article: <a href="/wiki/Project_Pigeon">Project Pigeon</a>

During World War II, Skinner worked on a project to guide missiles using pigeons. He trained pigeons to peck at images of enemy ships shown on screens inside the [missile](/wiki/Missile). The pigeons' pecking would steer the missile toward the target. Even though it worked in tests, this idea was not used because better technology became available.

## Influence on teaching

B. F. Skinner's ideas have greatly influenced [teaching](/wiki/Teaching) methods. In his book _The Technology of Teaching_, he talked about how [education](/wiki/Education) should help students learn by doing, not just listening. He believed that [learning](/wiki/Learning) works best when students are rewarded for doing the right things.

Skinner thought that teaching should focus on positive rewards instead of punishment. He said that teachers need to understand how learning really works to be effective. This means breaking tasks into small steps, giving rewards for correct answers, and making sure students feel successful as they learn.

## Contributions to social theory

B. F. Skinner became well-known for his books *[Walden Two](/wiki/Walden_Two)* and *[Beyond Freedom and Dignity](/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity)*. In *[Walden](/wiki/Walden) Two*, he describes an imaginary community where people live together happily. This community works on sharing and getting along well. Because of this, its members are more productive and content than people in the outside world.

Skinner also started the [Twin Oaks Community](/wiki/Twin_Oaks_Community) based on ideas from *Walden Two*. In his other book, *Beyond Freedom and Dignity*, Skinner suggested that science and new technologies could help build a better world. He believed we should find better ways to encourage good behavior instead of using punishment.

## Political views

B. F. Skinner believed that understanding how to guide people's behavior could help solve big problems, especially those made worse by new technologies like the [atomic bomb](/wiki/Atomic_bomb). He thought that instead of using punishment, we should use rewards to encourage good behavior. He liked an old book called _[Emile: or, On Education](/wiki/Emile:_or,_On_Education)_ by [Jean-Jacques Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau) because it showed how positive rewards can work well.

In his book _Walden Two_, Skinner imagined a small, peaceful community where people use science and understanding to solve problems without fighting. He did not think children should be punished at school and even helped stop spanking in California. His idea of a perfect world included friends, good health, art, and a balance between work and fun. He wanted a place where everyone felt they were helping and where there were enough resources for all, by using less and having fewer people.

## "'Superstition' in the Pigeon" experiment

B. F. Skinner did an experiment to see how pigeons can develop habits that seem like magic tricks. He put hungry pigeons in a cage where food appeared at set times, no matter what the [pigeon](/wiki/Pigeon) was doing. 

The pigeons began to repeat certain actions when the food appeared. For example, one pigeon would turn around in circles. Another would peck at a corner of the cage. And another would bob its head up and down.

Skinner thought this showed how people can also develop habits that feel like they control things, even when they really don’t. For example, someone might touch wood for luck after winning a few times, even though touching wood doesn’t actually change their luck.

Later scientists studied this more and found that these habits might happen for different reasons than Skinner first thought. They suggested that some of these actions are more about the pigeon getting ready for food, rather than thinking it could make food appear.

## Criticism

### Noam Chomsky

In 1959, linguist [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky) reviewed Skinner’s book _[Verbal Behavior](/wiki/Verbal_Behavior)_. He thought Skinner’s ideas about language were too simple and did not explain how children understand many sentences. This review started new ways of thinking in psychology called the [cognitive revolution](/wiki/Cognitive_revolution). Skinner did not reply to Chomsky, but later agreed with a response by [Kenneth MacCorquodale](/wiki/Kenneth_MacCorquodale) in 1972.

Chomsky also reviewed Skinner’s book _[Beyond Freedom and Dignity](/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity)_. He argued that Skinner’s work with animals could not explain human actions and was not truly scientific.

### Psychodynamic psychology

Some people thought Skinner did not agree with the work of [Sigmund Freud](/wiki/Sigmund_Freud) and [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis). Others believe Skinner shared some of Freud’s ideas and was influenced by them.

### Temple Grandin

Animal behavior expert [Temple Grandin](/wiki/Temple_Grandin) wrote that during a meeting when she was 18, Skinner tried to [touch her legs without consent](/wiki/Sexual_assault), and she told him to stop. Grandin talked about this in interviews in 2006 and 2018. She also said Skinner did not at first agree with her idea that understanding the brain could help understand behavior better, but changed his mind after having a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke).

## Professional career

B. F. Skinner was a teacher and scientist who worked at many universities. He started as an instructor at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota) and later became a professor there. He also taught at [Indiana University](/wiki/Indiana_University) and spent most of his career at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University).

Skinner received many awards for his work. He was honored with special prizes from groups like the [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association) and the [National Science Foundation](/wiki/National_Science_Foundation). He also got important awards from universities and science groups around the world. He was also given special degrees, called honorary degrees, from many universities.

## Publications

B. F. Skinner wrote many books about how people learn and behave. Some of his well-known books are:

- _[The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis](/wiki/The_Behavior_of_Organisms)_ (1938)
- _[Walden Two](/wiki/Walden_Two)_ (1948)
- _Science and Human Behavior_ (1953)
- _[Verbal Behavior](/wiki/Verbal_Behavior)_ (1957)
- _[Beyond Freedom and Dignity](/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity)_ (1971)
- _Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography_ (1976)

These books talk about his ideas on learning, behavior, and understanding ourselves and others.