Han dynasty

The Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) was an important time in China's history. It began when Liu Bang became the ruler and lasted for many years, with a short break. This time is often called a "golden age" because it greatly shaped China's culture and identity. Many people in China today are called the "Han people," and their language and writing come from this period.

The Han emperor was the most powerful person, but he shared decisions with nobles and wise advisors. The country was divided into areas ruled directly by the emperor and others that were like small kingdoms. Over time, the emperor’s power became stronger.

During the Han dynasty, there was growth in trade and new inventions. People created coins that were used for many years, and the government managed important resources like salt and iron. Amazing inventions included paper, better ships with rudders, and tools to measure earthquakes. The Han dynasty also had to protect its lands from nearby groups like the Xiongnu and keep trade routes open, such as the Silk Road.

Later in the Han dynasty, problems such as fights among leaders and large rebellions weakened the empire. After the emperor died in 189 AD, leaders competed for power, and the Han dynasty ended in 220 AD when another ruler took control.

Etymology

After the fall of the Qin dynasty, a leader named Xiang Yu gave Liu Bang control of a small area called Hanzhong. This area was named after the Han River that flows through southwest Shaanxi. When Liu Bang won the fight for power called the Chu–Han Contention, he named his new dynasty the Han dynasty after the Hanzhong area. The word Han (漢) was also an old name for the Milky Way or "Sky River". The Chinese character for Han tells us about this history.

History

Main article: History of the Han dynasty

Further information: Timeline of the Han dynasty

Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)

See also: Chu-Han contention, Han–Xiongnu Wars, Han dynasty in Inner Asia, and Southward expansion of the Han dynasty

China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their rule ended after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang. Soon after, the dynasty fell apart. Two leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, fought to control China. Liu Bang won at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BC) in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang became the title of Emperor and is known as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). Chang'an (modern Xi'an) became the capital of the reunified empire under Han.

At the start of the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn), also called the Former Han (前漢; 前汉; Qiánhàn), thirteen areas were controlled by the central government in the west, while ten semi-autonomous kingdoms were in the east. Emperor Gaozu gave some of these leaders land to keep them happy.

By 196, the Han court replaced these kings with members of the royal Liu family, except for Changsha. The loyalty of non-family members was doubted, and after several uprisings by Han kings—the biggest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154—the court made reforms to limit the power of these kingdoms in 145. Kings could no longer choose their own staff; the court did this instead. Kings became figureheads of their fiefs and collected some taxes as income. The kingdoms were never fully removed and lasted until the end of Western and Eastern Han.

To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu leader Modu Chanyu (r. 209–174 BC) took control of many tribes in the Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his rule, he controlled areas of Inner Asia like Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin. Emperor Gaozu was worried about Han-made iron weapons being traded to the Xiongnu, so he stopped trade with them.

In response, the Xiongnu attacked what is now Shanxi, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After talks, the heqin agreement in 198 BC made the Xiongnu and Han equal partners through marriage, but the Han had to give the Xiongnu silk, food, and wine.

Even with the agreement and talks between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC), many Xiongnu leaders ignored the treaty and attacked Han lands south of the Great Wall for more goods. In a meeting in 135 BC, Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) decided to keep the heqin agreement, even with continuing raids.

However, a meeting the next year led most to think a limited attack at Mayi to kill the Chanyu would cause chaos in Xiongnu land and help Han. When this failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu started a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu areas. The biggest battle was in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, when Han leaders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) pushed the Xiongnu court north of the Gobi Desert, and Han forces went as far as Lake Baikal.

After Wu's rule, Han forces kept fighting the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye (r. 58–31 BC) finally agreed to be a tributary vassal of Han in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival, Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC), was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.

In 121 BC, Han forces pushed the Xiongnu out of a large area from the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They stopped a joint Xiongnu-Qiang attack in 111 BC. That same year, the Han court set up four new areas in this land: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei. Most people there were soldiers. Sometimes, the court moved farmers to new settlements, along with slaves and convicts for hard work. The court also encouraged common people like farmers, merchants, landowners, and workers to move to the frontier.

Even before Han expanded into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian traveled from 139 to 125 BC and made contact with many nearby lands. Zhang met Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also learned about Shendu (the Indus River valley) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All these lands later sent Han embassies. These contacts started the Silk Road trade network that reached the Roman Empire, bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glass.

From around 115 BC to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu for control of the cities in the Tarim Basin. The Han won and set up the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC to protect and manage foreign affairs there. The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC brought Han control to modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was added with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and setting up the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han population was 57,671,400 in 12,366,470 households.

To pay for his wars and expansion, Emperor Wu took control of some private businesses. He made central government monopolies run mostly by former merchants. These included salt, iron, liquor, and bronze coinage. The liquor monopoly lasted from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron ones ended in the early Eastern Han. Making coins stayed a central government monopoly for the rest of the Han.

The government monopolies ended when a group called the Reformists gained power. The Reformists opposed the Modernist group that led during Emperor Wu's rule and the later regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The Modernists wanted strong, expanding foreign policy with money from heavy government control of the economy. The Han copied the Qin's central rule but focused on merit and virtue. The Reformists wanted a careful, non-expanding foreign policy, lower taxes, and budget reform for private business.

Wang Mang's reign and civil war

Main articles: Wang Mang and Xin dynasty

Wang Zhengjun (71 BC – 13 AD) was first empress, then empress dowager, and finally grand empress dowager during the rules of Emperors Yuan (r. 49–33 BC), Cheng (r. 33–7 BC), and Ai (r. 7–1 BC). During this time, her male relatives were regents. After Ai's death, her nephew Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD) became regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC – 6 AD).

When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as heir, and Wang Mang was made acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to give up control to Liu Ying when he grew up. But he broke his promise, and despite protests and revolts, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of Han and the start of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD).

Wang Mang started many big changes that failed. These included banning slavery, nationalizing and sharing land equally among households, and making new money, which lowered the value of coins. Though these changes caused much anger, Wang's rule ended because of big floods around 3 AD and 11 AD. Silt built up in the Yellow River over time, raising its level and breaking the flood control works. The river split into two new paths: one north and one south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers closed the southern path by 70 AD.

The floods made many farmers leave their homes, and some joined groups of bandits and rebels like the Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies could not stop these groups. Finally, rebels entered the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang.

The Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25 AD), a descendant of Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC), tried to bring back the Han dynasty and made Chang'an his capital. But he was overthrown by the Red Eyebrow rebels, who killed him and put the puppet ruler Liu Penzi in place. Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, later called Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), showed his skill at the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD and was asked to be emperor.

Under Guangwu, the Han Empire began again. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi made the Red Eyebrows give up and killed their leaders for treason. From 26 to 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu fought other leaders who claimed to be emperor; when they were beaten, China was united under Han rule.

The time from the Han's start to Wang Mang's rule is called the Western Han (西漢; 西汉; Xīhàn) or Former Han (前漢; 前汉; Qiánhàn) (206 BC – 9 AD). The capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From Guangwu's rule on, the capital moved east to Luoyang. The time from his rule to the fall of Han is called the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).

Eastern Han (25–220 AD)

Further information: Red Eyebrows

The Eastern Han (traditional Chinese: 東漢; simplified Chinese: 东汉; pinyin: Dōnghàn), also called the Later Han (後漢; 后汉; Hòuhàn), started on 5 August AD 25 when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the big revolt against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo attacked Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not control the area again until AD 30.

The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam revolted against Han in AD 40. Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) stopped their revolt between AD 42 and 43. Wang Mang fought the Xiongnu again, who were not allied with Han until their leader Bi submitted to Han in AD 50. This created two Xiongnu groups: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, allies of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, enemies of Han.

During Wang Mang's troubled rule, China lost control of the Tarim Basin, taken by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used to attack the Hexi Corridor in Gansu. Dou Gu (d. 88 AD) beat the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, pushing them out of Turpan and chasing them to Lake Barkol before setting up a base at Hami. After Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by Xiongnu allies in Karasahr and Kucha, the base at Hami was closed.

At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu, who ran to the Altai Mountains. After the Northern Xiongnu moved to the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei took land from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai (d. AD 181), who often beat Chinese armies. But after Tanshihuai's death, his group broke apart.

Ban Chao (d. AD 102) used help from the Kushan Empire, which ruled parts of South and Central Asia, to take Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90 – c. 100 AD) asked for a marriage alliance with Han in AD 90 and was refused, he sent troops to Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The fight ended with the Kushans leaving because they ran out of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was made again and given to Ban Chao.

Foreign visitors to the Eastern Han included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, like An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara. Besides ties with the Kushans, the Han got gifts from rulers in the Parthian Empire, Burma, and Japan. Ban Chao also sent an unsuccessful mission to Rome in AD 97 with Gan Ying as envoy.

A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) is recorded in the Weilüe and Book of Later Han as reaching the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD) in AD 166, though Rafe de Crespigny says this was likely a group of Roman merchants. Roman glasswares and coins found in China, along with Roman medallions from Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, were found at Óc Eo in Vietnam. This was near the commandery of Rinan, where Chinese sources say Romans first arrived, and also embassies from Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161. Óc Eo is thought to be the port city "Cattigara" described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 AD) as east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) along the Magnus Sinus (the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea).

Emperor Zhang's (r. 75–88 AD) rule is seen by later Eastern Han scholars as the best time for the dynasty. Later rulers had more problems with eunuchs in court politics and fights among royal families. In 92 AD, with help from eunuch Zheng Zhong (d. 107 AD), Emperor He (r. 88–105 AD) put Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 AD) under house arrest and removed her family from power. This was revenge for Dou removing the family of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and hiding her from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) ruled as regent during a money crisis and a big Qiang revolt from 107 to 118 AD.

When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 AD) was made to think by eunuchs Li Run and Jiang Jing that Deng and her family planned to remove him. An removed Deng's family from office, sent them away, and made many kill themselves. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD), put the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne to keep power in her family. But palace eunuch Sun Cheng (d. 132 AD) led a successful attack to remove her and put Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144 AD) on the throne. Yan was arrested, her family killed or sent away, and her eunuch supporters killed. Regent Liang Ji (d. 159 AD), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 AD), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (d. 165 AD) killed after she fought Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Later, Emperor Huan used eunuchs to remove Liang Ji, who was forced to kill himself.

Students from the imperial university protested against the eunuchs in Emperor Huan's court. Huan made things worse by starting big building projects and keeping many women in his palace during a time of money problems. Palace eunuchs put the official Li Ying and his friends from the Imperial University in prison on false charges of treason. In 167 AD, Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 AD) convinced Emperor Huan to let them go. But the emperor permanently stopped Li Ying and his friends from working in government, starting the Partisan Prohibitions.

After Huan's death, Dou Wu and Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168 AD) tried to overthrow the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 AD), Cao Jie (d. 181 AD), and Wang Fu. When the plan was found, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan supported the eunuchs. He and his soldiers met Dou Wu and his supporters at the palace gate, shouting treason at each other. As Dou Wu's supporters left, he was forced to kill himself.

Under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD) the eunuchs renewed the partisan prohibitions and expanded them, also selling top government jobs. Many government tasks were given to eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while Emperor Ling spent time roleplaying with women and in military parades.

End of the Han dynasty

Main article: End of the Han dynasty

The Partisan Prohibitions were ended during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, mainly because the court did not want to upset the gentry class who might join the revolts. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice were two different religious groups following Taoist healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD).

Zhang Lu's revolt in now northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi was not stopped until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's big revolt in eight provinces was crushed by Han forces in a year; but smaller uprisings happened for decades after. Though the Yellow Turbans were beaten, many leaders made armies and gained power outside the falling empire.

General-in-chief He Jin (d. 189 AD), step-brother of Empress He (d. 189 AD), planned with Yuan Shao (d. 202 AD) to remove the eunuchs by having generals march to the capital. In a letter to Empress He, they asked for the eunuchs' execution. After waiting, Empress He agreed. But when the eunuchs found out, they made her brother He Miao cancel the order. The eunuchs killed He Jin on 22 September 189.

Yuan Shao then attacked Luoyang's Northern Palace, and his brother Yuan Shu (d. 199 AD) attacked the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were taken and about two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had fled with Emperor Shao (r. 189 AD) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han (r. 189–220 AD). As they were chased by the Yuans, Zhang killed himself by jumping into the Yellow River.

General Dong Zhuo (d. 192 AD) found the young emperor and his brother lost in the country. He brought them back to the capital and became Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and making Yuan Shao run away. After Dong Zhuo made Emperor Shao lose his position and made his brother Liu Xie Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a group of former officials against Dong, who burned Luoyang and moved the court to Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later killed Emperor Shao.

Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu (d. 198 AD) in a plan by Wang Yun (d. 192 AD). Emperor Xian left Chang'an in 195 AD for Luoyang's ruins. Xian was convinced by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD.

Yuan Shao fought Cao Cao for control of the emperor. Yuan's power fell after Cao beat him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who fought his brothers over family control. His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (d. 221 AD), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.

After Cao lost at the sea battle Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China split into three areas: Cao Cao in the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) in the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) in the west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) made Emperor Xian give up the throne to him and is known as Emperor Wen of Wei. This ended the Han dynasty and started fighting among the Three Kingdoms: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han.

Culture and society

Main article: Society and culture of the Han dynasty

In the Han dynasty, society had the emperor at the top. Below him were kings from his family, then nobles, and commoners, with slaves at the lowest level. People with higher ranks had more benefits and privileges.

Families were small groups of close relatives living together. Marriages followed traditions, with families exchanging gifts and sometimes arranging marriages for their children. Education grew more important, with schools teaching the ideas of Confucius. Many books and poems were written about life and the world. People had different jobs based on their status, and wealthy families wore finer clothes than others.

Families made offerings to spirits and ancestors, believing these helped keep balance in the world. They followed special ceremonies and believed certain actions could affect nature and health. New ideas and religions, like Buddhism, began to spread during this time.

Government and politics

Main article: Government of the Han dynasty

See also: List of emperors of the Han dynasty and Translation of Han dynasty titles

Central government

Left: A rubbing of a Han pictorial stone showing an ancestor worship hall (cítang 祠堂_)

Right: A scene of historic paragons of filial piety conversing with one another, Chinese painted artwork on a lacquerware basketwork box, excavated from a tomb of the Lelang Commandery on the Korean Peninsula dating to the Eastern Han

In the Han dynasty, the emperor had a lot of power. He was the top judge, leader of the army, and made big decisions for the government. Even with this power, he often listened to his ministers. They met in court conferences to talk about and decide policies together. The emperor could choose to accept or reject their advice.

Below the emperor were three main advisors called the Three Councillors of State. The Chancellor helped plan the government’s money and managed many tasks. The Imperial Counsellor made sure officials followed the rules. The Grand Commandant led the army and helped in hard times.

Local government

See also: List of provinces and commanderies of the Han dynasty

The Han dynasty divided its land into provinces, commanderies, and counties. Provinces were the biggest areas, each led by a governor who watched over smaller areas. Commandery leaders managed several counties and did jobs like defending the area and helping farmers. County leaders kept order, collected taxes, and organized community work.

Kingdoms and marquessates

Main article: Kings of the Han dynasty

Some areas called kingdoms were ruled by family members of the emperor. These kings had their own local governments but were watched closely. Over time, the emperor took away some of the kings’ powers to stay in control. The Han dynasty also made agreements with nearby groups like the Xiongnu, which helped bring peace and new trade routes.

Military

Main article: Military of the Han dynasty

When the Han dynasty began, men had to join the army at age twenty-three. They trained for a year and then served for a year. After this, they could be called back for more service and needed to keep practicing. During wars, more soldiers were gathered from across the country to help protect the empire. The army was organized into groups led by officers, with smaller units managed by captains.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Han dynasty

The Han dynasty had a busy economy with many important systems. One key part was money. At first, people used coins called ban liang. Later, Emperor Wu introduced a new coin called wuzhu. This became the main coin used in China for many years.

People paid taxes in coins and crops. There were taxes on land, people, and goods. The government also controlled some important products like salt and iron to keep prices fair. This helped manage the economy and support the country during the Han dynasty.

Science and technology

The Han dynasty was an important time for science and technology in China. People used new materials like paper, invented by Cai Lun around 105 AD.

Farming tools were improved, and new ways to grow crops were created. Farmers used special ploughs and seed drills. They also found ways to protect crops from wind and drought.

Buildings were mostly made of wood, but some were made of brick and stone. They built tombs, city walls, and watchtowers. Engineers made machines for tasks like grinding grain and lifting water. They also made early devices to measure distances and tell time.

Mathematicians worked with shapes and numbers, including using negative numbers. Astronomers kept records of stars and comets and made calendars.

People made maps and improved ships with rudders. They also created new vehicles like the wheelbarrow. Doctors used natural methods like acupuncture and special medicines to help people stay healthy.