Hannibal's crossing of the Alps

Hannibal's crossing of the Alps

Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC was a big event in the Second Punic War. It is one of the most famous achievements in ancient warfare.

Hannibal led his Carthaginian army over the Alps into Italy. He did this to bring the war closer to the Roman Republic, avoiding Roman soldiers on land and their navy at sea.

The two primary sources for this event are Polybius and Livy. The Alps were not well-known at that time, and there are no archaeological findings. So, all modern ideas about the route depend on understanding the place names used by Polybius and Livy and comparing them to today's geography.

A 2022 book by Dutch historian Jona Lendering says that the old records about Hannibal's path are not clear and often do not agree. This makes it hard to know exactly how he crossed the mountains.

Background

After losing the First Punic War, Carthage wanted to find new lands to gain wealth. Hamilcar Barca led efforts to conquer Iberia. He started in 238 BC and took control of southeastern Iberia over nine years.

After Hamilcar died in 228 BC, his son-in-law Hasdrubal took command. But in 221 BC, Hasdrubal was killed, and the army chose Hamilcar's 26-year-old son, Hannibal, as their new leader. Hannibal promised to continue his father’s goal of taking the war to Rome in Italy. In his first two years as commander, he worked to secure the lands his father had won and prepared for future battles.

Roman foreign relations

Hannibal knew a lot about Roman politics and saw that it was a good time to attack. He had spies from the Gallic people everywhere in the Roman Republic, even inside the Roman Senate. After the First Punic War, which ended in 241 BC, the Romans had been strengthening their control over Italy and also taking over places like Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia.

The Romans had been fighting with the Padane Gauls, people from northern Italy, for over a hundred years. In 225 BC, these Gauls tried to attack Rome because they did not want Rome to take over their land, but they lost. By 224 BC, the Boii people had to agree to follow Roman rules, and soon after, so did the Anari. In 223 BC, the Romans fought again with the Insubres Gauls. After a tough battle, the Romans won and the Gauls were forced to obey Rome. In 222 BC, when the Gauls asked for peace, the Romans refused and defeated them in a big battle near Mediolanum. This made the Padane Gauls unhappy and ready to rebel again.

Preparations

Hannibal wanted a safe place in the Po valley after crossing the Alps. He sent messages to the Gallic tribes there. These tribes were unhappy with the Romans because the Romans had taken their land.

Two tribes, the Insubres and the Boii, agreed to help Hannibal.

Hannibal knew the Alps would be very hard to cross. He sent scouts to learn about the mountains. The Gauls told him the way down would be steeper than the way up, so he wanted allies waiting for him at the bottom. Friends in the area would help make his journey safer.

Siege of Saguntum

Main article: Siege of Saguntum

Hannibal wanted the people of Saguntum to join him in fighting against Rome. He tried many ways to make them attack first, but they only sent a message to the Romans about what he was doing. The Romans sent a group to try to make peace, but Hannibal ignored them. He hoped they would declare war. The group saw that war was coming but said nothing. They told Rome that Hannibal was ready to act soon.

The Romans were busy fighting elsewhere and did not help Saguntum, even though they had promised to. Hannibal surrounded Saguntum and began a long siege that lasted eight months. After capturing the city, Hannibal sold its people and took valuable items back to Carthage.

March through the Pyrenees

After winter in Cartagena, Hannibal got his army ready for a hard journey. He left his brother Hasdrubal to guard the area and swapped soldiers from Africa and Iberia to keep them loyal. Hannibal was afraid the Romans might use Catalonia, so he decided to capture it quickly. He split his army into three groups to control the area faster.

Hannibal’s army walked through many towns and met several tribes, including the Illergetes. The campaign was quick but tough for his soldiers. After taking control, Hannibal left some troops to protect the area and sent others home to show support for his mission. His main group, with important supplies and Hannibal himself, moved along the coast through towns like Tarraco and Barcino. The other two groups went through different valleys, making sure any tribes that resisted were handled, and later joined the main group.

March to the Rhône

The walk to the Rhône River after crossing the Pyrenees was mostly calm for Hannibal's army. They had spent the past July and August dealing with tribes in the Pyrenees. The lands they walked through had different views about the Carthaginians, the Romans, and Hannibal's army.

The city of Massalia, now called Marseille, was a busy Greek trading place influenced by the Romans. Massalia was worried about Hannibal's army coming and tried to get tribes on the east side of the Rhône River to support the Romans.

Publius Scipio, a leader for 218 BC, was told by Roman leaders to stop Hannibal near the Ebro River or the Pyrenees. He was given 60 ships but moved slowly. When he reached the Po area, some local tribes started to rebel because they knew Hannibal was coming. Instead of using soldiers already ready, Roman leaders decided to send new soldiers to the Po region and asked Publius Scipio to gather a new army. This was not done as fast as needed. After organizing the new soldiers, Publius Scipio sailed from Ostia. Without compasses, ships sailed close to the coast and stopped each night. After sailing north along the Italian coast and then west, he stopped in Massalia. There, he learned that Hannibal was already north of the city, on the other side of the Rhône River.

Crossing the Rhône

Main article: Battle of Rhone Crossing

Hannibal’s march, especially his route over the Alps, is often discussed. But historians agree on where he camped near the Rhône River. The crossing was well planned and went smoothly.

At the time, Rome was focused elsewhere. Hannibal used local tensions to help him. He persuaded nearby groups to give him boats and canoes for the crossing. While some Gauls waited on the far side to attack, Hannibal split his forces. One group crossed further north, then moved south to surprise the Gauls. Hannibal’s main force crossed openly, drawing attention away from the northern move. With both forces working together, the Gauls were surprised and quickly overcome. This allowed Hannibal to cross the river successfully.

From the Rhône to the Alps

Hannibal wanted to reach the Alps before winter came. He knew that if he waited until spring, the Romans would have more time to get ready. He sent some of his soldiers to learn about the Roman army near the Rhône River.

While his army was still on one side of the river, Hannibal spoke to local leaders to get their help. He wanted them to trust his plan to march to Italy. After crossing the Rhône, Hannibal started his trip toward the Alps. His soldiers walked long distances each day, covering around 20 kilometers. Along the way, Hannibal made friends with local tribes who gave him supplies for his journey.

Ascent of the Alps

We do not know for sure which path Hannibal and his army took through the Alps. Historians have debated this for many years. Some think it was the Little St Bernard Pass, while others suggest Col de Clapier, Col de la Traversette, or Col de Montgenèvre. Recent studies of soil and plants near Mont Cenis also give clues.

Hannibal faced challenges along his route. When his army reached a pass near Mt. Du Chat, local people tried to stop them. Hannibal used smart tactics to overcome these defenders. Later, near the Little St Bernard Pass, another group of locals tried to attack his army. Hannibal was ready and managed to protect his troops and supplies.

After resting, Hannibal led his tired and cold soldiers down from the mountains. He reminded them they were close to their goal and showed them the land below, giving them hope to continue.

Descent to Italy

When Hannibal and his army reached the bottom of the Alps, they faced a steep and dangerous path. The ground was hard to walk on because it melted during the day and froze at night. Many soldiers slipped and fell, and sadly, some did not survive.

The soldiers found part of the path blocked by a landslide. Hannibal tried to find another route, but the snow was too deep. So, they went back and worked together to clear the path. After three days of hard work, they made it passable. The army then moved to safer ground near modern Ivrea, marking the end of their journey across the Alps. They had started with many soldiers, but only some remained as they began their campaign in Italy during the Second Punic War.

In culture

In Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver's Travels, the character Gulliver talks to the spirit of Hannibal. They talk about an old story that might not be true.

Artist Jacques-Louis David painted a famous picture in 1800 showing Napoleon crossing St. Bernard Pass. He wrote Hannibal’s name on the rocks to compare the two journeys.

In a 2005 episode of Doctor Who, called “World War Three,” a character talks about Hannibal’s trip over the Alps.

In a The Simpsons episode called "Cape Feare", some elephants have words about Hannibal’s journey on their sides.

In a 2016 comic book from IDW Publishing, called Godzilla: Rage Across Time, Godzilla causes trouble for Hannibal as he moves toward Rome.

In 2025, a Swedish music group called Sabaton wrote a song named “Lightning at the Gates” about Hannibal’s trip over the Alps. The song is part of their album called Legends.