History of Belgium

In most of its past, what is now Belgium was part of bigger lands or split into smaller areas. During the Middle Ages, the land was divided into many small ruled areas like the Duchy of Lower Lorraine, the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Flanders, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, the County of Namur, the County of Hainaut and the County of Luxembourg. The shape of Belgium today started with the southern part of the medieval Burgundian Netherlands.

The Eighty Years' War from 1568 to 1648 caused a split between the northern Dutch Republic and the Southern Netherlands, from which Belgium and Luxembourg grew. After a big battle in 1814, the Congress of Vienna made two new countries, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. In 1830, the Southern Netherlands rebelled in the Belgian Revolution and created the modern Belgian state, which was recognized at the London Conference of 1830. The first King of Belgium, Leopold I, became king in 1831.

The first half of the 1900s was very hard. Belgium’s rule of staying out of fights was broken in both World Wars. After this, Belgium grew quickly and helped start the Benelux group with its neighbors. This group later helped create the European Economic Community, which led to the European Union. Today, many of the European Union’s offices are in Brussels.

Inside the country, there have been problems because of differences of language and unequal economic development. Belgium is now split into three parts: Dutch-speaking Flanders in the north, French-speaking Wallonia in the south, and bilingual Brussels in the middle. Since the 1990s, Belgium has helped in world peace efforts with the United Nations. Environmental worries caused problems for the government led by Jean-Luc Dehaene. Since then, Belgium’s politics have become more split.

Names

Belgium and Flanders were old names for a place called the Burgundian Netherlands. Later, this area became the Austrian Netherlands and then modern Belgium. The County of Flanders was where the Burgundian dukes first settled, and they added more lands later.

The word "Belgium" comes from Latin. Julius Caesar used it to describe a place in northern France, where tribes called the Belgae lived. Later, during Roman times, the name Belgium was used for areas in Germany, Luxembourg, and France. Over time, the name came to refer to places further north, including the Netherlands and Belgium. It was during the Brabant Revolution in 1790 that Belgium started to mean the southern part of the Netherlands. This meaning became common after the revolution of 1830, when Belgium became independent from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Prehistory

On the land that is now Belgium, scientists found old bones from early humans called Neanderthal at a place called Engis in 1829–30. Some of these bones are very old, from about 100,000 years ago.

One of the earliest farming groups in Europe, called the LBK culture, reached the eastern part of Belgium around 5000 BC. They built walls around their villages for safety. Later, new farming groups like the Michelsberg culture came, while some people still hunted and gathered.

During the Bronze Age, starting around 1750 BC, new groups arrived in Belgium, bringing metal tools. These groups spoke languages related to what we now call Indo-European. By around 500 BC, tribes from a group called the Celtic people lived in the area and traded with places around the Mediterranean sea. Around 150 BC, people in Belgium began using coins for the first time.

Celtic and Roman periods

Main article: Gallia Belgica

When Julius Caesar came to the area now known as Belgium, the people living there were called the Belgae. They lived in parts of Belgium, France, and Germany. Caesar wrote that they were different from other groups in Gaul.

The Belgae lived in small groups or tribes. Some of these tribes in Belgium included the Menapii, Nervii, and the Germani cisrhenani. Life was simpler for these groups, and they lived in areas with forests and wetlands.

As the Romans came to the region, they organized it into areas called provinces. Important towns such as Tongeren, Tournai, and Trier became centers of Roman life. Christianity also began to spread in this time, with the first known bishop, Servatius, teaching in Tongeren.

Early Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, areas that are now Belgium were influenced by Roman and Germanic cultures. The regions along the coast, like Flanders, were ruled by Germanic tribes, while inland areas kept more Roman traditions. Important Frankish kings, such as Clovis I and Charlemagne, ruled much of this land and brought it into larger empires.

Over time, the land now known as Belgium split into several smaller states, including the County of Flanders, the Duchy of Brabant, and others. These states often acted independently. Flanders became quite wealthy through trade and played a big role in the culture of Europe during this time.

Late Middle Ages and Renaissance

Many cities such as Ypres, Bruges, and Ghent gained special rights during this time. Trade grew thanks to groups like the Hanseatic League, and many beautiful Gothic buildings were built. Nearby countries like France and England wanted to control the area.

Over time, parts of what is now Belgium came under the control of Burgundy and later the Habsburgs. Cities like Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp became important places for trade and art. Artists and composers from this time created works that people across Europe admired.

Dutch Revolt and 80 Years' War

Main article: Dutch Revolt

See also: Dunkirkers

Long ago, the land that is now Belgium was divided into different regions. Some people in the north became Protestant, while others in the south stayed Catholic. This difference caused problems.

When King Philip II of Spain tried to stop Protestantism, some parts of Belgium rebelled. This started a long war called the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The war had many battles and made life hard for many people.

Spanish leaders tried to control the area, and there were many fights. In the end, the northern parts became independent, while the southern parts stayed under Spanish rule. People in the south spoke Romance languages, and Dutch was spoken in the north.

17th and 18th centuries

Further information: Southern Netherlands

During the 1600s and 1700s, Antwerp stayed strong even though nearby Dutch forces blocked it. It became a key place for making things and creating art. Famous artists like the Brueghels, Peter Paul Rubens, and Van Dyck made beautiful paintings during this time.

Many wars happened between France and the Dutch Republic. France wanted to take control of areas now known as Belgium. There were several big wars, and much of the fighting took place in Belgium. After these wars, Belgium came under the control of Austria, forming what was called the Austrian Netherlands.

In 1789, there was a revolution called the Brabant Revolution. People in Belgium wanted to be free from Austrian rule. They even created a new state called the United States of Belgium. But the revolution did not last, and Austrian rule returned.

Later, French forces invaded Belgium and took it over in 1795. Belgium became part of France. New rulers came from France, and many changes happened. The French brought new laws that treated everyone equally, but many people were unhappy with French rule. Taxes were high, and many Belgians had to leave their homes. Still, this time also brought new opportunities for trade and business, helping Belgium grow in the years to come.

United Kingdom of the Netherlands

Main article: United Kingdom of the Netherlands

After Napoleon lost a big battle at Waterloo in 1815, leaders from Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia met at the Congress of Vienna. They decided to join the former Austrian Netherlands and the Seven United Provinces into one country called the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This was to help protect against future attacks from France. The country was ruled by King William I.

King William I made many changes to improve the economy and start new industries, like coal mines and textile factories in the south. But he did not treat everyone fairly. He did not like the main religion in the south, the Roman Catholic Church, and tried to control schools and languages. This made many people unhappy and angry toward the government.

Belgian revolution

Main article: Belgian Revolution

The Belgian Revolution began in August 1830 when people in Brussels were inspired by a play and started singing patriotic songs. This led to fights in the streets. Some wealthy people who supported the revolution were worried about the violence and wanted peace with the Dutch rulers.

The people of Belgium felt they did not have enough say in the government and did not like the Dutch leader. They also felt left out because most people spoke Dutch, but many in Belgium spoke French. Many Belgians were also Catholic and were unhappy with some rules.

At first, the Dutch king thought the protests would stop on their own. He offered to forgive the protesters but sent soldiers to Brussels. The soldiers faced strong resistance from the people, who built barriers to defend themselves. After fighting, the Dutch soldiers left Brussels. There were also battles in other parts of Belgium. Dutch ships attacked the city of Antwerp after it was taken by revolutionaries.

Even though the 1815 agreement did not allow Belgium to be independent, other European countries showed support for the Belgian cause. In November 1830, leaders from Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met and agreed to stop the fighting. They decided that Belgium should be its own country and stay neutral in future conflicts. In 1831, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg became the first king of Belgium. The day he accepted the constitution, July 21, 1831, is still celebrated as a national holiday today.

A temporary government was set up to discuss independence with the Dutch. Belgium officially declared independence on October 4, 1830. A special group created a constitution that made Belgium an independent country with a constitutional monarchy. However, only wealthy French-speaking people and religious leaders could vote. The Catholic church was allowed to operate freely.

Belgium and the Netherlands continued to have disagreements for eight more years. In 1839, a treaty was signed that settled the border between the two countries. Belgium lost some areas, while the Netherlands kept others. The five major European powers promised to protect Belgium's neutrality. This promise became important when Belgium's neutrality was challenged at the start of World War I.

Independence to World War I

Main article: Belgium in the long nineteenth century

Industrial Revolution

See also: Industrial Revolution § Belgium, History of Wallonia § Industry, and Sillon industriel

Belgium became a key industrial country during this time, especially in the southern region called Wallonia. Growth started in the mid-1820s and sped up after 1830. Coal helped this growth because factories needed it. Factories built furnaces and mills where coal was found, like around Liège and Charleroi. A man named John Cockerill from England helped start many factories.

Industry spread through valleys like the Sillon industriel, Haine, Sambre, and Meuse. By 1830, Belgium had many coal mines and used steam engines. Coal was sold locally and to other countries. Making clothes from cotton and flax was also very important. Ghent was a major industrial city until the 1880s.

Railways

Main article: History of rail transport in Belgium

Belgium built an early railway system to help its industries. After 1830, Belgium created railways connecting cities, ports, and mining areas. This helped Belgium become a center for railways. In 1835, the first railway in continental Europe was built between Brussels and Mechelen by King Léopold I. Private companies built smaller railways.

By the 1900s, Belgium was exporting railway parts. One businessman, Édouard Empain, built transport systems around the world, including the Paris Métro.

Other important businesses included Cockerill-Sambre, the chemical factories of Ernest Solvay, and the firearms maker Fabrique Nationale de Herstal.

Liberalism and Catholicism

See also: Liberalism in Belgium and First School War

Before the late 1800s, Belgium had two big groups: the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party. The Liberals wanted less influence from the Church, which caused big debates, especially about schools. This conflict, called the "First School War," happened from 1879 to 1884. The Catholics won, and their party stayed in power until 1917.

There were also disagreements about universities. Secular universities like the Free University of Brussels competed with Catholic ones like the Catholic University of Leuven.

Linguistic conflict

The north of Belgium spoke Dutch, while the south spoke French and other local languages. After Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, French became the official language. This made Dutch speakers feel less important. By the 1920s and 1930s, laws gave Dutch equal status in the north. French stayed the official language in the south, and Brussels became bilingual. There were also movements to protect each language's culture.

Foreign relations and military policy

See also: Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War

Belgium stayed neutral during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71, but the war nearby caused its army to prepare. Later, Belgium reformed its military. By 1909, Belgium required military service. New forts were built along the border, including at Antwerp, Liège, and Namur.

Rise of the Socialist Party and the trade unions

See also: Belgian Labour Party and Belgian general strikes

The economy was slow from 1873 to 1895, which caused workers to protest. The Belgian Workers' Party started in 1885 and asked for changes to society. Workers went on strikes. Despite some trouble, Belgium started early social programs like sickness compensation in 1894 and old-age insurance in 1900.

Catholic governments and social policy

Catholic governments introduced many reforms to help workers. Laws were passed to protect workers, improve housing, and limit child labor. In 1900, the first law for old-age pensions was approved. Other laws helped with unemployment, health services, and rest days for workers. Education laws also changed, making school mandatory for children aged 6 to 14 by 1914.

Voting rights

See also: Belgian general strike of 1893

In 1893, Belgium started giving all men the right to vote after big protests. But the system still gave more votes to richer people. Later, in 1918, King Albert changed the voting system so every man had one vote. Women got the right to vote later, in 1948.

Culture

Artistic and literary culture in Belgium grew in the late 19th century. Historians studied the country's past, and artists explored new styles.

Architecture and Art Nouveau

See also: Art Nouveau

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, big buildings in Belgium were often designed in a classic style. But Brussels also became famous for a new style called Art Nouveau. Architects like Victor Horta, Paul Hankar, and Henry van de Velde created beautiful buildings, some of which are still there today.

Empire

See also: Belgian colonial empire

Many Belgians supported their empire, even though some were unsure about it. They believed in their empire and showed this in many ways.

Congo Free State and Belgian Congo

Main articles: Congo Free State and Belgian Congo

King Leopold II of Belgium set up trading places along the Congo River between 1879 and 1884. At the Berlin Conference from 1884 to 1885, the area was given to Leopold and called the Congo Free State. It was a big place, almost 80 times larger than Belgium.

The Congo Free State was run by Leopold’s company. Many terrible things happened there. People were forced to work very hard to collect rubber. Because of this hard work and sickness, many people became very sick or died. In 1908, Belgium took over the colony.

China 1902–1931

The Belgian Tianjin Concession in China started in 1902. It didn’t bring much money or people, but it did help bring electric lights and trolley cars to Tianjin in 1906, making it China’s first city with modern public transport. Belgian companies supplied all the equipment.

Ruanda-Urundi 1917–1961

After Germany lost World War I, Belgium took over Ruanda-Urundi.

In 1962, Ruanda-Urundi became independent and split into two countries: Rwanda and Burundi.

World War I

See also: Belgium in World War I

When World War I began, Germany invaded Belgium. This was part of their plan to reach Paris quickly. Because of the threat to France, Britain joined the war. The Belgian army, though smaller, fought hard to slow the German forces. Their efforts gave France and Britain time to prepare to fight back.

Belgian soldiers were important in the early days of the war. They helped delay German plans and protect key areas. King Albert I led the army, while the government moved to France. Soldiers from Belgian Congo also helped in Africa, and some served on the Eastern Front.

During the war, Germany controlled most of Belgium. They took many resources, which made life hard for the people. Many Belgians were treated harshly by German forces. To help feed the people, an American engineer named Herbert Hoover organized aid. His group worked with Belgian leaders to bring food to the country, helping millions of people each day during the war.

Interwar period

King Albert returned as a hero after the war. Belgium had suffered because the Germans took valuable machines. Only a few trains worked, and many factories and homes were destroyed.

Belgium recovered quickly. The first games after the war were held in Antwerp in 1920. In 1921, Luxembourg joined Belgium in a special agreement for trade.

During this time, new art styles grew in Belgium. Famous artists like René Magritte created interesting paintings. Comic books became very popular. One famous series, The Adventures of Tintin, began in 1929 and many children loved to read it. Belgium became known for its comic books, which were enjoyed all over Europe.

World War II

Main article: Belgium in World War II

Belgium tried to stay out of World War II, but German forces invaded the country on May 10, 1940. After 18 days of fighting, Belgian forces surrendered on May 28. The government escaped to form a government in exile.

After the defeat in 1940, many Belgian soldiers and civilians went to Britain to join the Belgian army in Exile. They formed the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, known as the Brigade Piron, and fought in the Normandy Invasion and battles in France and the Netherlands. Belgians also served in British special forces and the Royal Air Force during the war.

Belgium was occupied by Germany from 1940 until it was freed in September 1944. During this time, many Belgians resisted the occupation in different ways, such as helping Allied airmen escape and hiding people who were at risk.

Belgium was liberated by Allied forces in late 1944. Brussels was freed on September 3, and Antwerp was taken by the British Second Army on September 4. The Battle of the Scheldt was fought to open the port of Antwerp for supplies.

WWII to present

"Royal Question"

After the war, Léopold III came back after being held by German forces. Some people worried he had worked with enemy leaders, which caused a big debate in Belgium. He stayed in Switzerland until 1950, while his brother Prince Charles led the country.

A vote in 1950 showed mixed feelings about Léopold returning to power. Because the vote was close and there were protests, Léopold III decided to step down in 1951. His son Baudouin became the new leader.

Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC

Belgian soldiers were sent to help control parts of West Germany after the war. The last soldiers left in 2002.

In 1950, Belgian volunteers went to support the United Nations in the Korean War. They fought in important battles, and many were lost. The last soldiers returned home in 1955.

Benelux and Europe

On September 5, 1944, the Benelux Customs Union was created, later becoming the Benelux Economic Union in 1960. The Benelux Parliament started in 1955.

The Treaty of Brussels in 1948 led to the creation of NATO, with Belgium joining in 1949. NATO’s main office is in Brussels.

Belgium was among the first countries to create the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 and the European Economic Community in 1957. Belgium joined the Schengen area in 1985.

Belgian "Economic Miracle"

After the war, Belgium received help from the United States through the Marshall Plan, which gave money to rebuild the country. The government worked to improve the economy and people’s living standards.

Even with improvements, many people still lived in poor conditions. Differences grew between the Dutch-speaking north (Flanders) and the French-speaking south (Wallonia). Flanders gained more support, while Wallonia faced economic challenges.

Second "School War" 1950–1959

After elections in 1950, a new government led by the Christian Social Party changed laws to support private (Catholic) schools. This caused disagreement with other groups. Later governments tried to balance these changes, leading to a compromise known as the "School Pact" in 1958.

Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis

In 1960, Belgium granted independence to the Belgian Congo, which became the First Republic of Congo. There were conflicts and changes in leadership, with some areas trying to break away. Belgium sent forces to help during these troubles.

General Strike of 1960–61

In 1960, workers in Wallonia went on strike to protest economic changes and ask for more regional control. Though the strike was meant to include everyone, workers in Flanders were less supportive.

"Linguistic Wars"

Differences over language became very important in Belgium. The country split its university along language lines in 1968, and the government changed because of these issues.

Rise of the federal state

Because of continuing disagreements about language and regional powers, Belgium changed its government several times. These changes created different areas with their own powers, turning Belgium into a country where different parts have control over many decisions.

Political parties

Starting in the 1960s, many political parties split into Dutch-speaking and French-speaking groups because of continuing disagreements about language and regional powers.

1990 to present

Belgium took part in many international missions and faced economic challenges. The country also went through several government changes and political debates, especially around language and regional powers.

In 2025, Bart De Wever became the new prime minister.