History of Malaysia

Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. It became a country in the second half of the 20th century. But people have lived there for thousands of years, even in prehistoric times in places like Borneo.

Important moments in Malaysia’s history include becoming a country, losing Singapore as a partner, and facing big changes.

People have lived in what is now Malaysia for a very long time. The oldest signs of humans there are about 1.83 million years old. Modern humans have been around for about 40,000 years. Over time, many cultures and religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam came to influence the area.

European powers such as the Portuguese and later the English took control of parts of Malaysia. After World War II, Malaysia worked toward independence from British rule. In 1957, the part called Malaya became free. In 1963, Malaysia was formed with more areas joining. But in 1965, Singapore left to become its own country.

In recent years, Malaysia has grown quickly under leaders like Mahathir Mohamad. The country faced hard times during the 1997 Asian financial crisis and more recently during the COVID-19 pandemic. Today, Malaysia continues to change and develop.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Malaysia

Stone tools from very early humans, likely Homo erectus, have been found in Lenggong. These tools are very old, dating back over 1 million years. They show some of the earliest human life in Southeast Asia.

The oldest known modern human remains in Malaysia are from a skull found in the Niah Caves in Sarawak. This skull is about 40,000 years old, making it one of the oldest examples of modern humans in Southeast Asia. These early people lived near what is now Niah National Park.

The area has also revealed important ancient burial sites. Malaysia was home to early groups like the Orang Asli, including the Negritos, Senoi, and Proto-Malays. These groups have rich histories and traditions that go back thousands of years.

Early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms

Long ago, the Malay people became the main group living on the peninsula. Small early states were formed and were heavily influenced by Indian culture, similar to much of Southeast Asia. Indian influence in the region goes back at least to the 3rd century BC. Culture from South India was brought to Southeast Asia by the South Indian Pallava dynasty during the 4th and 5th centuries.

Trade with India and China

Ancient Indian books mention a place called Suvarnadvipa (Golden Peninsula), which some think refers to the Malay Peninsula. Another Indian book, the Vayu Purana, mentions a place named Malayadvipa, which may refer to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The Malay Peninsula appeared on maps by Ptolemy as the Golden Chersonese.

Trade with China and India began in the 1st century BC. Pieces of Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo from that time, after China expanded southward. In the early centuries of the first millennium, people in the Malay Peninsula followed Hinduism and Buddhism from India, which greatly changed their language and culture. The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.

Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries)

See also: Sanskritisation

There were up to 30 small Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, mostly along the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula. One of the earliest known kingdoms was Langkasuka, located in northern Malaya on the east coast. It was closely linked to Funan in Cambodia, which also ruled parts of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the Kingdom of Pahang was mentioned in the Book of Song. Other early areas were Chi Tu and Pan Pan, believed to be in northeast Malaya.

Gangga Negara

Gangga Negara was a semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in the Malay Annals. It covered parts of today’s Beruas, Dinding, and Manjung in Perak, Malaysia, with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings. According to the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, Gangga Negara was founded by Merong Mahawangsa’s son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, who was said to be a descendant of Alexander the Great or from Khmer royalty no later than the 2nd century.

Old Kedah

The Greek geographer Ptolemy wrote about the Golden Chersonese, showing that trade with India and China had existed since the 1st century AD. During this time, coastal city-states traded with China and India and had ongoing trade and relationships with China while also contacting Indian traders. They shared a common culture.

Gradually, rulers in the western part of the archipelago began to adopt Indian culture and government styles. Inscriptions found in Palembang (South Sumatra) and Bangka Island, written in Malay using a script from India, show that they adopted Indian models while keeping their own language and social system. These inscriptions mention a Dapunta Hyang of Srivijaya who led battles against enemies and cursed those who broke his laws.

Being on the trade route between China and South India, the Malay Peninsula was part of this trade. The Bujang Valley, located at the northwest entrance of the Strait of Malacca and facing the Bay of Bengal, was a frequent stop for traders from China and South India. This is shown by discoveries of trade items, sculptures, writings, and monuments from the 5th to 14th century.

Srivijaya (7th–13th century)

See also: Srivijaya

Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the Malay Peninsula was influenced by Srivijaya. The center of Srivijaya’s empire is believed to have been at a river mouth in eastern Sumatra, near today’s Palembang, Indonesia. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi was mentioned, thought to be the Chinese name for Srivijaya. For over six centuries, the Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a trading empire that became a major power in the region. The empire was based on trade, with local leaders swearing loyalty to a main ruler for mutual benefit. In 1025, the Chola dynasty from India captured Palembang, taking wealth from the king and his family. By the end of the 12th century, Srivijaya had shrunk to a smaller kingdom, and its last ruler, Queen Sekerummong, was overthrown in 1288. Majapahit, which was once under Srivijaya, then became the main power in the area.

Relations with the Chola Empire

See also: South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I and Chola invasion of Srivijaya

Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of South India were friendly during the rule of Raja Raja Chola I. But during the rule of Rajendra Chola I, the Chola Empire invaded Srivijaya’s cities (see Chola invasion of Srivijaya). In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire, who is believed to have destroyed Kota Gelanggi. Kedah (known as Kadaram in Tamil) was invaded by the Cholas in 1025. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty, who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. The senior Chola’s successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to stop a rebellion in Kedah to remove other invaders. The Chola’s actions greatly reduced Srivijaya’s power, which had influenced Kedah, Pattani, and as far as Ligor. During the rule of Kulothunga Chola I, Chola control was set up over the Srivijaya area of Kedah in the late 11th century. The Chola rulers left a strong memory in Malaysia, as many Malaysian princes today have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, including the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.

Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem from the 2nd century AD, describes goods from Kedaram filling the streets of the Chola capital. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah after this. Its king Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled northern areas, an event recorded in a stone writing in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and the Sri Lankan records, Mahavamsa.

Decline and breakup

Sometimes, the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Kingdom, and the Chola Empire tried to control the smaller Malay states. Srivijaya’s power weakened from the 12th century as its relationship with its areas broke down. Wars with Javanese forces caused it to ask for help from China, and wars with Indian states are also thought to have happened. In the 11th century, the center of power moved to Malayu, a port possibly further up the Sumatran coast near the Jambi River. The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further weakened by the spread of Islam. Areas that turned to Islam early, like Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya’s control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Majapahit Empire took control of the peninsula.

An excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 found Chinese ceramics from the Tang and Song dynasties at Santubong (near Kuching) dating to those times. Santubong may have been an important port in Sarawak during that period, but its importance decreased during the Yuan dynasty, and the port was abandoned during the Ming dynasty.

According to the Malay Annals, a new ruler named Sang Sapurba was made the new leader of the Srivijayan area. It is said that after he went up Seguntang Hill with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba made a sacred agreement with Demang Lebar Daun, the local ruler of Palembang. The new ruler then came down from Seguntang Hill into the plain of the Musi River, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of Demang Lebar Daun. Sang Sapurba was said to have ruled in Minangkabau lands.

In 1324, a Srivijaya prince, Sang Nila Utama, founded the Kingdom of Singapura (Temasek). According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba. He ruled Temasek for 48 years. He was recognized as ruler of Temasek by a Chinese Emperor’s envoy around 1366. He was followed by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399). In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara, was driven out of Temasek by forces from Majapahit or Ayutthaya. He later went north and founded the Sultanate of Malacca in 1402. The Sultanate of Malacca took the place of the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political power in the region.

Rise of Muslim states

Islam came to the Malay Archipelago with Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century. This ended the time when Hinduism and Buddhism were common. Islam spread slowly, starting with leaders and then reaching everyday people. The Islam practiced in Malaysia was shaped by older religions and was not very strict at first.

Malaccan Sultanate

Establishment

The city of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was started in 1400 by Parameswara, a prince from Srivijaya who left Temasek (now Singapore). He had to leave Temasek because of threats from Siam. He then went north and built Malacca, which became the first independent state in the area.

In 1404, the first Chinese trade group arrived in Malacca. Malacca's ties with Ming China gave it safety from attacks and helped it grow into an important trade place. Parameswara became a Muslim, and later his son was named the second ruler of Malacca by the Chinese Emperor.

Rise of Malacca

After first paying respect to Ayutthaya, Malacca quickly became strong on its own, controlling trade between China and India. It officially chose Islam, and the Malacca Sultanate helped spread Islam across the area. Malacca became a place where cultures mixed, sharing ideas from India, China, and Islam. The Malay language became important and was used in official work in Malaysian states.

Post-Malaccan sultanates

After Malacca was taken by the Portuguese in 1511, new sultanates like Johor and Perak were created. The Portuguese tried to change people to Catholicism, but local leaders kept fighting back. The Strait of Malacca became more important for trade, and the area was valued for its natural resources.

Johor Sultanate

The Johor Sultanate grew strong and controlled many places around the Straits of Malacca. It had fights with the Portuguese and later the Dutch. In 1641, the Dutch and Johor together beat the Portuguese and took over Malacca.

Perak Sultanate

The Perak Sultanate started in the early 16th century and became known for its tin trade. It stayed independent from Siamese control for over 200 years. Perak had problems with Aceh and inner fights but stayed an important trading state.

Pahang Sultanate

The Pahang Sultanate was started in the 15th century and was first under Malacca. It grew independent and sometimes competed with Malacca. Pahang had fights with Johor and Aceh but stayed a big power in the area.

Selangor Sultanate

During fights between Johor and Jambi, Bugis helpers of Johor later settled in Selangor. In 1766, the Bugis started the Selangor Sultanate, making it special as the only state in the Malay Peninsula begun by the Bugis.

Brunei Sultanate

Brunei was one of the first independent kingdoms and later turned to Islam. By the 15th century, its power reached parts of Borneo, the Philippines, and Mindanao. The Brunei Sultanate had troubles with western powers like Spain but kept control in Borneo.

16th–18th century

The Brunei empire's power reached places like the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. It had close ties with other sultanates, sometimes leading them. The Sultanate of Sarawak ruled itself under Sultan Tengah before joining the Bruneian Empire.

19th century

By the early 19th century, Sarawak was loosely ruled by Brunei. Inner fights and the finding of antimony ore caused trouble. In 1841, James Brooke was made governor of Sarawak by the Sultan of Brunei, starting British influence in the area.

Struggles for hegemony

The small coastal Malay states were weak. People from Sulawesi, called the Bugis, came to the peninsula. They took control of Johor in 1699 after the old ruler was killed. The Bugis also grew powerful in Johor, Kedah, Perak, and Selangor. Another group, the Minangkabau from Sumatra, settled in Negeri Sembilan.

With Johor gone, kings from Ayutthaya Kingdom took control of five northern Malay states: Kedah, Kelantan, Patani, Perlis, and Terengganu.

The 18th century saw Malaya's importance to Europe grow. Its tin was used for tea chests, and its pepper was valued in Europe. Gold mines also existed. This led to more people from faraway places moving to Malaya, including Arabs, Indians, and later Chinese.

Siamese expansion into Malaya

After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the northern Malay states were free from Siamese control for a time. In 1786, a British trader got control of Penang Island from the ruler of Kedah for the East India Company. Siam took back control of the northern Malay states and attacked Pattani. Kedah was controlled by Siam. In 1821, Siamese forces invaded and took over Kedah. Local Arab families helped the Sultan resist. In 1842, the Sultan agreed to Siamese terms and returned to power in Kedah.

Around 1760, a leader from Patani united Kelantan. This caused conflict with Terengganu. Terengganu remained stable under Sultan Omar Riayat Shah, who supported trade. In 1909, an agreement moved four northern Malay states from Siamese to British control, but Patani stayed with Siam and was not part of Malaysia later.

British influence

Main articles: British Malaya and British Borneo

Before the mid-1800s, Britain was mostly interested in trade, not taking land. They wanted new bases for their ships because of trade with China. In 1786, they got Penang Island from the Sultan of Kedah. Later, they also got land on the mainland called Province Wellesley. In 1819, they got Singapore from the Sultan of Johor. This made Britain the main colonial power on the peninsula.

The British set up their areas as free ports to increase trade and control through the Malacca Straits. Malay rulers liked working with Britain because they were afraid of attacks from Siam or Burma. In 1824, a treaty between Britain and the Netherlands divided control of the Malay Archipelago. Britain got Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and Labuan, calling them the Straits Settlements.

Colonial era

Main articles: British Malaya, North Borneo, Crown Colony of North Borneo, Raj of Sarawak, and Crown Colony of Sarawak

British in Malaya

The British first tried not to get involved in fights between groups in the Malay states. But tin mining was very important, and fighting hurt trade. So the British began helping some states make decisions. Over time, more states let British advisors help them rule.

By the early 1900s, several states had British advisors. Some kept more of their own ways, but all were changed by British rule. The British helped build up parts of Malaysia that had tin and rubber, making them important for trade.

British in Borneo

In the late 1800s, the British also took control of parts of Borneo. One part was ruled by a local leader who got help from a British explorer named James Brooke. He became the leader of a place called Sarawak. Another part was controlled by a British company. These areas grew and changed over time.

Race relations during colonial era

Before the British came, there were no fixed groups like “Malay” or “Chinese.” The British began to sort people into groups. They brought many workers from India and China to work in mines and farms. This created towns with many Chinese people and changed how society worked.

Over time, different groups started their own schools and businesses. Some Malays felt they were losing power, and this led to new ideas about being Malay. The British tried to educate some Malays to help run things, but this also made some want more independence.

World War II and the state of emergency

When World War II started, the British were not ready. Japanese forces attacked and quickly took over Malaysia. During this time, many people suffered, and different groups became more divided.

After the war, the British came back, but people wanted independence. New groups formed, and some began fighting for their ideas. This led to a hard time for Malaysia as it moved toward becoming its own country.

Emergence of Malaysia

Struggle for an independent Malaysia

The journey to create an independent Malaysia began with different groups working together. Leaders from Malay, Chinese, and Indian communities joined forces to achieve independence. They worked hard to create a stable and fair nation where everyone could live together peacefully.

In the early 1960s, leaders from Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo talked about joining together to form a new country called Malaysia. After many discussions and agreements, Malaysia was officially formed on September 16, 1963. It included Malaya, Sarawak, North Borneo, and Singapore. This new nation aimed to bring together people from different backgrounds under one government.

Challenges of independence

After becoming independent, Malaysia faced many challenges. The country needed to build its economy and make sure all groups felt fairly treated. Leaders worked on plans to improve industries and help people live better lives. They also had to handle disagreements between different groups and manage relations with nearby countries.

During these early years, Malaysia worked to create policies to help all its people, no matter their background. The government focused on education and economic development to build a strong and fair nation. Leaders aimed to balance the needs of different communities while promoting growth and stability across the country.

Modern Malaysia

See also: Human rights in Malaysia and Freedom of religion in Malaysia

In 1970, many Malaysians living below the poverty line were ethnic Malays. The government introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1971 to help reduce poverty and improve the economy for all groups.

To help Malays take part in the modern economy, the government created several agencies, including Perbadanan Nasional Berhad (PERNAS), Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS), and the Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM). These agencies created new jobs and helped grow the economy.

Mahathir administration

Main article: First premiership of Mahathir Mohamad

Mahathir Mohamad became the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia on 16 July 1981. One of his first actions was to release people who were detained under special laws.

Mahathir focused on growing the economy. He made Malaysia take control of Guthrie Corporation, a British company, by buying its shares. This brought many farms into Malaysian ownership.

Mahathir also encouraged Malaysians to learn from Japan and South Korea to improve industry and reduce farming. He started Malaysia's first national car, the Proton Saga, in 1985.

Mahathir made changes to government rules to balance power between leaders. He also worked to improve relations between different groups in Malaysia.

Mahathir's party faced problems, and he formed a new party. He also worked to end a long conflict with a group called the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). By 1989, they agreed to stop fighting.

Mahathir introduced plans to make Malaysia a developed nation by 2020. He also built big projects like the Petronas Twin Towers and started Malaysia's first Formula One race.

The economy faced challenges, but Malaysia managed to recover. Mahathir also dealt with political changes and protests.

In 2003, Mahathir stepped down after many years as leader.

Abdullah administration

Main articles: Islam Hadhari and Premiership of Abdullah Ahmad Badawi

Abdullah Ahmad Badawi became Malaysia's fifth prime minister in 2003. He promised to fight corruption and improve education.

After a big election win, Abdullah faced challenges like a tsunami in 2004. He also started plans to improve business and regional development.

Malaysia's first astronaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, went to space in 2007. There were also protests about elections and rights.

The economy faced difficulties during a financial crisis, but Malaysia recovered with government help.

In 2008, Abdullah resigned after losing support.

Najib administration

Main articles: 1Malaysia and 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

Najib Razak became Malaysia's sixth prime minister in 2009. He started the 1Malaysia campaign to bring people together.

In 2011, plans were made to change laws about detaining people without trial. However, some criticized the new laws.

In 2013, a group from the Philippines came to Malaysia, leading to a conflict that ended with Malaysian forces winning.

Najib faced problems with flights and taxes. There were also big protests about a financial scandal.

Najib's time as leader ended after losing an election in 2018.

Second Mahathir administration

Main articles: 2018 Malaysian general election and Second premiership of Mahathir Mohamad

Mahathir Mohamad became Prime Minister again in 2018. He promised to investigate a big financial scandal and reduce taxes.

He also talked about improving relations with North Korea and joining international agreements.

Mahathir's time was marked by political changes and crises.

Muhyiddin administration

Main articles: 2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis, Malaysian movement control order, COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia, 2021 Malaysian state of emergency, and Muhyiddin cabinet

On 1 March 2020, Muhyiddin Yassin became the eighth Prime Minister. His government faced the challenge of COVID-19, leading to measures to control the spread.

In 2020, a former leader was convicted of wrongdoings. The country also faced a state of emergency due to COVID-19 and political issues.

Muhyiddin stepped down in 2021 after losing support.

Ismail Sabri administration

Main article: Premiership of Ismail Sabri Yaakob

Ismail Sabri Yaakob became the ninth Prime Minister in 2021. He focused on ending COVID-19 measures and economic plans.

Changes were made to the constitution to treat certain states as equal partners. The country also faced political changes leading to an early election.

Anwar administration

Main article: Premiership of Anwar Ibrahim

Anwar Ibrahim became the 10th Prime Minister of Malaysia in 2022. He introduced new policies to improve the country.

Anwar announced plans for Malaysia to join an international group and improve relations with other countries.