History of journalism

The history of journalism shows how people have shared news and information for many years. Long before newspapers or television, news traveled by word of mouth. Merchants, sailors, and travelers brought stories from faraway places back to their towns. Others, like pedlars and performers, helped spread the word. Ancient scribes sometimes wrote these stories down, but this way of sharing news was not always reliable.

Everything changed with the invention of the printing press. This new technology made it possible to produce newspapers. Newspapers became the main way journalists shared news starting in the 18th century. Later, in the 20th century, radio and television became important ways to deliver news quickly to large audiences. Today, in the 21st century, the Internet is the newest and fastest way for journalists to share information with the world.

Early and basic journalism

In 1556, the government of Venice started publishing handwritten newsletters called Notizie scritte. These newsletters shared important political, military, and economic news across Europe, especially in Italy, during the early modern era (1500–1800). Though not exactly like today’s newspapers, they helped lay the groundwork for them.

By the 1400s, businessmen in Italian and German cities were writing down important events and sharing them with others. The first true newspaper began in Strasbourg in 1605, and soon others started in cities like Wolfenbüttel, Frankfurt, Berlin, and Hamburg. These papers shared news about wars, royal courts, and other big events.

Revolutionary changes in the 19th century

In the 1800s, newspapers became very important because of new technology, business ideas, politics, and culture. Faster printing machines and cheaper paper allowed newspapers to reach more people. As more people learned to read, the number of readers grew a lot.

Political parties supported local and national newspapers. By the end of the century, ads became a big way for newspapers to make money. This led newspapers to try to get as many readers as possible.

In the 1860s and 1870s, there were about 6,000 newspapers in Europe. By 1900, that number doubled to 12,000. Back then, newspapers had four pages with editorials, speeches, stories, and a few small ads. They were expensive, so most people read them in cafes. Big national papers like the London Times and the London Post focused on politics for important people.

Over time, printing became faster, and new ways to set type made it possible to print large newspapers overnight. Cheaper wood pulp replaced expensive paper. News gathering became a professional job done by special reporters. Freedom of the press grew, and taxes on newspapers ended, along with less government control.

Business people focused on making money, reaching more readers, and lowering prices. In New York, "Yellow Journalism" used exciting stories, colorful comics, sports, less political news, more crime stories, and lots of ads, especially for department stores. Women, who were often ignored before, now got advice columns about family, home, and fashion, and ads started targeting them more.

Radio and television

Main article: History of broadcasting

Radio broadcasting started in the 1920s. It became very popular in the 1930s and 1940s. People tested television before World War II. Television started to work well in the late 1940s. It became common in the 1950s and 1960s, replacing radio for most news and entertainment.

Internet journalism

Further information: Online journalism and online newspapers

The Internet changed how people got news after the year 2000. Many newspapers had trouble making money because people could read news for free online. Some big newspapers had money problems.

Because of these changes, journalists now tell more personal stories, news from around the world, and stories about local communities. Some newspapers became nonprofit organizations to stay open, and new groups like ProPublica started to share important stories.

By country or region

Canada

Main article: History of Canadian newspapers

There were five important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers that led to the development of modern newspapers. These periods are the "Transplant Period" from 1750 to 1800, when printing and newspapers first came to Canada as government news and announcements. This was followed by the "Partisan Period" from 1800–1850, when printers and editors became more involved in politics. The "Nation Building Period" from 1850–1900 saw Canadian editors work to create a shared national view. The "Modern period" from 1900 to the 1980s brought professionalism and the growth of newspaper chains. Since the 1990s, changes in technology and competition from the Internet have affected these chains.

China

Main article: History of newspaper publishing § China

For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in China.

Before 1910, journalism in China mainly served foreign communities. The main Chinese-language newspapers were published by Christian groups to reach educated people. They focused on training the first generation of Chinese journalists in Western news practices. Demands for change and revolution were not allowed in China and instead appeared in papers published in Japan, such as those edited by Liang Qichao (1873–1929).

The overthrow of the old imperial government in 1911 led to a surge in Chinese pride, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nationwide journalism. Major cities started their own efforts. Special attention was given to China’s role in World War I, the disappointing Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and Japan’s aggressive actions against China. Journalists formed professional groups and aimed to separate news from opinions. By the late 1920s, however, there was more focus on advertising and growing readership, with less interest in the strong opinions that had inspired earlier revolutions.

Denmark

Danish news media began in the 1540s with handwritten sheets sharing news. In 1666, Anders Bording, known as the father of Danish journalism, started a state paper. In 1720, Joachim Wielandt received the right to publish a newspaper. Denmark became one of the first countries to allow press freedom in 1770, though it ended in 1799. In the early 1800s, newspapers spoke out for fairness and modern society.

In 1834, the first liberal newspaper appeared, focusing more on news than opinions. These newspapers supported Denmark’s revolution in 1848. The new constitution of 1849 freed the Danish press. Newspapers grew in the late 1800s, often linked to political parties or labor unions. Modernization brought new features and technology after 1900. Circulation grew from 500,000 daily in 1901 to over 1.2 million by 1925. During World War II, some newspapers were destroyed, but underground papers encouraged resistance.

France

Main article: History of French journalism

1632 to 1815

The first newspaper in France, the Gazette de France, started in 1632 by the king’s doctor Theophrastus Renaudot (1586–1653), with support from King Louis XIII. All newspapers were censored and used to support the monarchy.

Under the old government, major magazines included Mercure de France, Journal des sçavans, founded in 1665 for scientists, and Gazette de France, founded in 1631. Jean Loret was one of France’s first journalists. He shared weekly news about music, dance, and Parisian life from 1650 to 1665 in verse, calling it a “gazette burlesque,” collected in three volumes of La Muse Historique (1650, 1660, 1665). The French press developed more slowly than Britain’s, focusing on the aristocracy rather than the middle and working classes.

Periodicals were censored by the government in Paris. Though not always politically active, they often criticized church mistakes and government problems. They supported the monarchy and played a small role in the revolution. During the revolution, new periodicals became important tools for different groups. Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) was the most famous editor. His paper L'Ami du peuple strongly supported the lower classes against their enemies. It stopped when he was killed. After 1800, Napoleon brought back strict censorship.

1815 to 1914

Magazines grew after Napoleon left in 1815. Most were based in Paris and focused on literature, poetry, and stories. They served religious, cultural, and political groups. During political crises, they shaped the views of their readers and helped change political ideas. For example, in 1830, there were eight Catholic magazines in Paris. None were officially owned by the Church, and they showed different opinions among educated Catholics about current events, such as the July Revolution that ended the Bourbon monarchy. Several supported the Bourbon kings but all eventually backed the new government, asking for peace and order. They often talked about the relationship between church and state. Generally, they asked priests to focus on spiritual matters and not get involved in politics. Historian M. Patricia Dougherty says this process created distance between the Church and the new king and helped Catholics understand church-state relationships and political power.

20th century

The press faced problems during the war due to shortages of paper and young writers, plus lots of censorship to keep people calm by not sharing bad war news. Parisian newspapers stayed mostly the same after the war; daily sales grew slowly from 5 million in 1910 to 6 million. The big postwar success story was Paris Soir; it didn’t have a political plan but focused on exciting stories to increase sales and serious articles to build respect. By 1939, its daily sales were over 1.7 million, twice as much as its closest rival, the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper, Paris Soir also published a very popular women’s magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine Match was inspired by the American magazine Life.

John Gunther wrote in 1940 that of the more than 100 daily newspapers in Paris, two (L'Humanité and Action Française's publication) were honest; "Most of the others, from top to bottom, have news columns for sale". He reported that Bec et Ongles was supported by the French government, the German government, and Alexandre Stavisky, and that Italy allegedly paid 65 million francs to French newspapers in 1935. France was a democratic country in the 1930s, but the people were not told about important foreign policy issues. The government tightly controlled all media to spread messages supporting its foreign policy of appeasement toward Italy and especially Nazi Germany. There were 253 daily newspapers, all independently owned. The five major national papers based in Paris were all controlled by special interests, especially right-wing political and business groups that supported appeasement. They took large secret payments to support the policies of various groups. Many leading writers were secretly paid by the government. Regional and local newspapers depended heavily on government advertising and shared news and opinions to please Paris. Most international news was shared through the Havas agency, which was mostly controlled by the government.

Germany

Main article: History of German journalism

See also: History of newspaper publishing § Germany

The history of German journalism began in the 16th century. Germany invented printing and created its first newspapers in that century. However, Germany was divided into many competing states, so before unification in 1871, no single newspaper had a leading role.

India

Main articles: History of newspaper publishing § India, and Media of India

For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in India.

The first newspaper in India began in 1780 under James Augustus Hicky, called Bengal Gazette. On May 30, 1826, Udant Martand (The Rising Sun), the first Hindi-language newspaper in India, started in Calcutta (now Kolkata), published every Tuesday by Pt. Jugal Kishore Shukla. Maulawi Muhammad Baqir founded the first Urdu-language newspaper, the Delhi Urdu Akhbar, in 1836. India’s press in the 1840s was a mix of small daily or weekly papers printed on simple presses. Few reached beyond their local areas and rarely tried to unite India’s many groups. Anglo-Indian papers focused only on British interests. Englishman Robert Knight (1825–1890) created two important English-language newspapers for a wide Indian audience, The Times of India and The Statesman. They helped promote nationalism in India by introducing people to the power of the press and political issues.

Italy

Early developments

Before the first regularly printed newspapers in the mid-17th century, from about 1500 to 1700, handwritten newsletters, known as avvisi, reporti, gazzette, ragguagli, were the fastest way to share military and political news in Italy.

These handwritten avvisi spread through Italy, created by the need for each court to know what was happening in opposing or even friendly courts. Over time, this information, once free, was sold by specialists and shared by couriers to meet high demand. From the mid-16th century, Italian newsletter writers, called menanti, reportisti, or gazzettieri, started news services, whose regularity may have depended on the postal network in their area.

The avvisi began and peaked in early modern Rome and Venice. It is easy to see why these two cities, in particular, played a big role in developing a “news service.” The words of Vittorio Siri, explaining why he chose where to work as a historian, give one reason. He needed “a city like that which Plutarch sought for a historian, that is, where there was a great and powerful court, full of ambassadors and ministers,” where “more than in any other city in the world one could see a multitude of people and soldiers who had been ambassadors at all the courts of Europe and where civil questions were managed by nobles, where people practiced who possessed refined judicial abilities and were knowledgeable about the affairs of princes.” Siri was talking about Venice, but Rome, the capital of the Catholic Church, was no different. Indeed, just a few years earlier Maiolino Bisaccioni, one of the many adventurous historian-gazetteers of the time, had declared “Rome, as you know [is] the place where all the news in the world is found.

The content and style of the avvisi differed between the two cities. Roman avvisi included church, political, and criminal stories, taking advantage of opposing groups willing to share state secrets or official gossip for their own benefit. These were read by church and government officials as well as the nobility. Because of the biased (and sometimes scandalous) comments on public affairs, they were censored by the Pope, and several writers were imprisoned or executed. The famous Roman lawyer Prospero Farinacci argued that revealing state secrets by newsletter writers was a crime that had to be punished as seriously as crimen laesae maiestatis. Venetian avvisi were more careful in covering such events and more focused on business matters.

17th century

Printed avvisi did not appear in Italy until the first half of the seventeenth century. Possible reasons for this were easier avoidance of censorship in handwritten form, reluctance of copyists to use printing technology (which they saw as a threat to their jobs), and clients wanting the status offered by handwritten information instead of the “common” print.

By the late 1630s, handwritten news-sheets became less important because of their limited reach and high costs. Scholars believe the first printed newspaper in Italy was edited in Florence in 1636 by Amador Massi and Lorenzo Landi, but no issue has been found to confirm that guess, so the newspaper Genova, printed from 1639, is considered the oldest printed newspaper in Italy. By the mid-seventeenth century, irregularly printed news-sheets had become common in many Italian cities. The Gazzetta di Mantova, the world's oldest newspaper still published today under the same name, was started in June 1664. By the late 17th century, newspapers in the Papal States had become widespread, with nearly every main town having its own local paper.

In 1668, the first Italian scientific journal was published, the Giornale de' Letterati, following the Journal des sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions in style. The Giornale de' Letterati had little political meaning but played an important role in sharing research and cultural work done outside Italy and spreading news about Italian culture across Europe. The journal continued until 1675, and another series ran until 1769. Benedetto Bacchini published a similar journal at Parma (1688–1690) and at Modena (1692–1697).

18th century

Literary journals reached larger audiences in the eighteenth century. The Giornale de' letterati d'Italia, founded by Apostolo Zeno with help from Francesco Scipione Maffei and Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1710), continued after 1718 by Pietro Zeno, and after 1728 by Mastraca and Paitoni. Another Giornale, to which Fabroni contributed, was published at Pisa from 1771 onward. The Galleria di Minerva, first published at Venice in 1696, covered current events, arts, and culture. One of the many achievements of the scholar Giovanni Lami was his connection with the Novelle letterarie (1740–1770), which he founded and, after the first two years, almost entirely wrote himself. Its learning and fairness gave it much authority. The Frusta letteraria (1763–1765), influenced by the English Spectator, was published at Venice by Giuseppe Baretti under the pseudonym of Aristarco Scannabue.

19th century

Next were the Giornale enciclopedico (1806) of Naples, followed by the Progresso delle scienze (1833–1848) and the Museo di scienze e letteratura of the same city, and the Giornale arcadico (1819) of Rome. Among the writers for the Poligrafo (1811) of Milan were Monti, Perticari, and some of the first names in Italian literature. The Biblioteca italiana (1816–1840) was started in Milan with support from the Austrian government, and its editing was offered to and turned down by Ugo Foscolo. Originally led by Giuseppe Acerbi, Pietro Giordani, and Vincenzo Monti, it became a symbol of conservative, neoclassical culture. Another Milanese journal was the Conciliatore (1818–1820), which, though it lasted only two years, is remembered for the efforts of Silvio Pellico, Camillo Ugoni and its other writers to introduce a more dignified and brave way of criticism. After its end and the loss of interest in the Biblioteca italiana, the next work of value was the Antologia, a monthly magazine started in Florence in 1820 by Gino Capponi and Giovan Pietro Vieusseux, but stopped in 1833 because of a poem by Tommaseo, a main writer. Some strong articles were written by Giuseppe Mazzini. Naples had in 1832 Il Progresso by Carlo Troya, helped by Tommaseo and Centofanti, and Palermo had the Giornale di statistica (1834), stopped eight years later. The Archivio storico, made of reprints of documents with historical studies, began in 1842 and was started by Vieusseux and Gino Capponi. La Civiltà Cattolica (1850), started in Naples by Father Carlo Maria Curci and his three fellow Jesuits, Taparelli, Bresciani and Liberatore, is still the journal of the Jesuit Order. The Rivista contemporanea (1852) was started in Turin to compete with the French Revue des deux Mondes, which has been the model for many European journals. The Politecnico (1839) of Milan was stopped in 1844 and restarted in 1859. The Nuova Antologia (1866) quickly gained a well-earned reputation as a high-quality review and magazine; its rival, the Rivista europea, was the special journal of Florentine writers. The Rassegna settimanale was a weekly political and literary review, which after eight years became a daily newspaper, the Rassegna. The Archivio trentino (1882) was the journal of “Italia Irredenta.” The Rassegna nazionale, led by the marchese Manfredo di Passano, a leader of the moderate clerical party, the Nuova rivista of Turin, the Fanfulla della Domenica, and the Gazzetta letteraria may also be mentioned.

Latin America and the Caribbean

British influence spread globally through its colonies and business ties with merchants in major cities. They needed current market and political information. The Diário de Pernambuco started in Recife, Brazil, in 1825. El Mercurio began in Valparaiso, Chile, in 1827. The most influential newspaper in Peru, El Comercio, first appeared in 1839. The Jornal do Commercio was founded in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1827. Later, Argentina started its newspapers in Buenos Aires: La Prensa in 1869 and La Nacion in 1870.

In Jamaica, several newspapers represented the views of the white planters who owned slaves. These included titles such as the Royal Gazette, The Diary and Kingston Daily Advertiser, Cornwall Chronicle, Cornwall Gazette, and Jamaica Courant. In 1826, two free people of color, Edward Jordan and Robert Osborn, founded The Watchman, which openly supported the rights of free people of color and became Jamaica’s first newspaper against slavery. In 1830, criticism of the slave-owning rulers was too much, and Jamaican colonial leaders arrested Jordan, the editor, charging him with constructive treason. However, Jordan was later freed, and he eventually became Mayor of Kingston after slavery ended.

After slavery ended in the 1830s, Gleaner Company was started by two Jamaican Jewish brothers, Joshua and Jacob De Cordova, business people who represented the new class of mixed-race Jamaicans taking control after slavery ended. While The Gleaner represented the new establishment for the next century, a growing black, nationalist movement campaigned for more political representation and rights in the early twentieth century. For this purpose, Osmond Theodore Fairclough founded Public Opinion in 1937. O.T. Fairclough was supported by radical writers Frank Hill and H.P. Jacobs, and the first issue of this new newspaper tried to unite public opinion around a new nationalism. Strongly linked to the People’s National Party (PNP), Public Opinion included progressive writers such as Roger Mais, Una Marson, Amy Bailey, Louis Marriott, Peter Abrahams, and future prime minister Michael Manley, among others.

While Public Opinion fought for self-government, British prime minister Winston Churchill made it clear he had no intention of overseeing “the end of the British Empire,” so Jamaican nationalists in the PNP were disappointed with the limited constitution given to Jamaica in 1944. Mais wrote an article saying “Now we know why the draft of the new constitution was not published before,” because the underlings of Churchill were “all over the British Empire carrying out the real imperial policy hidden in the Prime Minister’s statement.” The British colonial police raided the offices of Public Opinion, took Mais’s manuscript, arrested Mais, and convicted him of seditious libel, sentencing him to six months in jail.

Poland

Main article: History of Polish journalism

The history of Polish journalism goes back to the 15th century. The first Polish newspaper was Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny, published in 1661.

Russia

Main article: History of Russian journalism

The history of Russian journalism includes writing for newspapers, magazines, and electronic media since the 18th century. The main topics are low literacy rates, censorship and government control, and a focus on politics and political messages in the media.

United Kingdom

16th century

By the end of the sixteenth century, the word gazzetta spread from Italy to England. The definition given to the term by John Florio in his Italian-English dictionary A Worlde of Wordes of 1598 is important; under the Italian entry for the plural form gazzette there is a clear meaning: “the daily news or information written from Italy, namely from Rome and Venice, tales of current news.” Florio also lists two related terms: the verb gazzettare meaning “to write or report daily events to one another, to tell flying tales” and the profession of gazzettiere defined as “a reporter or someone who shares daily events.” Toward the end of the sixteenth century, the Italian term gazzetta became popular. Francis Bacon in his own letters used the Italian term gazzetta instead of a matching English word or the Anglicized word “gazette.” At the same time, the term reporto, widely used in Venice with the same meaning, came to England as the word report. As a result, reportista (reporter) became synonymous with a writer of newsletters or gazettes.

17th century

Main articles: History of British newspapers and Media of Scotland

On 7 November 1665, The London Gazette (originally called The Oxford Gazette) began publishing. It was published twice a week. Other English papers started publishing three times a week, and later the first daily papers appeared. Publishing was controlled under the Licensing Act 1662, but the act’s breaks from 1679 to 1685 and from 1695 onward allowed many new titles.

Mercurius Caledonius started in Edinburgh in 1660, was Scotland’s first but short-lived newspaper. Only 12 issues were published during 1660 and 1661.

Early British newspapers usually had short articles, temporary topics, some pictures and service articles (classifieds). They were often written by many authors, though the authors’ names were often hidden. They began to include some advertisements, and they did not yet have sections.

20th century

By 1900, popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, and succeeded through advertising. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or supported remain central: broad content, using advertising to pay for lower prices, strong marketing, independent regional markets, freedom from party control. His Daily Mail held the world record for daily sales until his death. Prime Minister Lord Salisbury joked it was "written by office boys for office boys".

Socialist and labor newspapers also grew and in 1912 the Daily Herald launched as the first daily newspaper of the trade union and labor movement.^{[citation needed]}

Newspapers reached their peak importance during World War I, partly because wartime issues were so urgent and newsworthy, while members of Parliament were limited by the all-party coalition government from attacking the government. By 1914 Northcliffe controlled 40 percent of the morning newspaper sales in Britain, 45 percent of the evening and 15 percent of the Sunday sales. He tried to turn this into political power, especially in opposing the government during the Shell Crisis of 1915. Lord Beaverbrook said he was, "the greatest figure who ever walked down Fleet Street." A.J.P. Taylor, however, says, "Northcliffe could destroy when he used the news properly. He could not step into the empty place. He wanted power instead of influence, and as a result, lost both."

Other important editors included C. P. Scott of the Manchester Guardian, James Louis Garvin of The Observer_ and Henry William Massingham of the influential weekly opinion magazine, The Nation.

United States

Main articles: History of American journalism and History of American newspapers

Further information: Early American publishers and printers

Journalism in the United States started as a "humble" activity and became a political force in the fight for American independence. After independence, the first amendment to the U.S. Constitution guaranteed freedom of the press and freedom of speech. The American press grew quickly after the American Revolution. The press became a key support for the country’s political parties, but also for organized religious groups.

During the 19th century, newspapers began to spread outside the cities of the Eastern United States. From the 1830s onward the penny press played a big role in American journalism. Technological advances such as the telegraph and faster printing presses in the 1840s helped grow the press across the nation, as it experienced fast economic and population growth.

By 1900, major newspapers had become powerful centers of advocacy, muckraking and sensationalism, along with serious, and objective news gathering. In the early 20th century, before television, the average American read several newspapers a day.^{[citation needed]} Starting in the 1920s, changes in technology changed the nature of American journalism as radio and later, television, became increasingly important.

In the late 20th century, much of American journalism joined big media conglomerates (mainly owned by media moguls like Ted Turner and Rupert Murdoch). With the rise of digital journalism in the 21st century, newspapers faced a business challenge as readers turned to the internet for news and advertisers followed them.

Historiography

Journalism historian David Nord explained that in the 1960s and 1970s, new scholars thought old ways of writing about journalism history were too narrow. They felt these old histories focused too much on famous people and companies instead of the full story.

In 1974, James W. Carey talked about what he called the "Problem of Journalism History." Many people then saw journalism history as a slow growth of freedom and knowledge, from political news to commercial news. They believed big changes like industrialization, growing cities, and democracy shaped the press. However, some argued this view missed important details from earlier studies.