History of the Incas

The Incas created a large empire called the Inca Empire, centered in modern-day Peru and Chile. It stretched about 4,000 kilometres from north to south, making it the biggest empire in the Americas before Europeans arrived. The empire began in the early 1200s when a leader named Manco Cápac founded a small kingdom called the Kingdom of Cuzco.

Over time, the empire grew under leaders like Pachacuti. They used both conquest and peaceful ways to bring many lands into their rule, reaching far across the Andean mountains. Trouble came when a civil war happened, and later the last Inca emperor, Atahualpa, was captured by a Spanish explorer named Francisco Pizarro. This led to Spanish control over the region.

The Incas called their empire Tawantin Suyu, meaning "The Four United Regions." The empire was split into four parts, all meeting at their capital city, Cusco. Even after the Spanish took over, some Inca people kept their traditions alive in a smaller area called the Neo-Inca State until the Spanish ended it in 1572.

Historical sources

Spanish chronicles

The first written records about the Inca Empire come from European writers. Later, people of mixed heritage and local writers also shared stories about the Incas. These writers learned from people across the empire. But they had trouble because they needed to translate stories from a very different way of thinking. This often led to mistakes and disagreements in the records.

Some Spanish writers wanted to make their conquest seem right, so they described the Incas in a certain way. Others, especially those linked to the Catholic Church, tried to fit Inca beliefs into their own stories. There were also writers of mixed heritage and local people who wanted to make the empire or their own family groups look better.

Incan sources

Before writing, the Incas used special songs to tell their history during ceremonies. They also used colorful cloths and boards with paintings to show the lives of their rulers. These were kept in a special place in Cusco. Some events were also remembered using quipus, a system of knotted strings, though we are not sure exactly how they worked.

The Incas tried hard to remember important events, but sometimes they left out or changed facts. After meeting European culture, writing became the main way to share history. Over time, many stories mixed with European ideas, making it hard to know what is true about the Incas.

Historicity of sources

Historians learn about the Inca Empire by looking at old writings and digging up old objects. After the Spanish came to South America, they wrote down what they saw about the Incas. This helps us learn about their lives and traditions. Archaeologists also find old buildings and things, showing us how the Incas made their cities and what their everyday life was like. All these pieces of information help us understand the amazing Inca civilization.

Chronology

Chronology according to the Peruvian historian José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu.

Chronology based on the works "Suma y Narración de los Incas" by Juan de Betanzos (1551) and "El Señorío de los Incas" by Pedro Cieza de León (1880)

Chronology according to the "Miscelánea antártica" by Miguel Cabello de Balboa (1586).

According to María Rostworowski, the victory against the Chanka took place in the early years of the 15th century.

Origins

See also: Inca mythology § Inca foundation legends

Legends

The Ayar Brothers

Four pairs of brothers and their tribes started from Pacaritambo. They traveled to the Wanakawri mountain. After this, they moved toward the valley of Cuzco. They met the local chief and decided this was a good place to settle. One brother stayed behind to connect them to the Sun, while the rest moved forward. They faced some challenges but eventually founded the city of Cuzco and began to build their homes and plant crops.

This story was shared by Juan de Betanzos, and other writers like Bernabé Cobo, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Martin de Murúa, Pedro Cieza de León, Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti, and Cristóbal de Molina.

Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo

This tale was told by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, who was descended from Tupac Yupanqui.

The Sun decided to help people by sending his children, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo. They began their journey from Lake Titicaca with a golden rod, looking for a place where it would sink into the ground. They finally found this spot at the valley of Cuzco. There, they settled and began teaching people new ways to live, building homes, and organizing the community into different groups.

Historical Explanation

The Inca people likely began as a group of travelers from the north, moving away from the collapsing Tiwanaku culture. They eventually reached Pacaritambo and then moved toward the Wanakawri mountain. From there, they aimed to control the Huatanay Valley, which was already home to many local groups. To avoid conflicts, the Incas formed alliances through marriage with nearby leaders, helping to establish peace and their rule in the area.

Kingdom of Cusco

Main article: Kingdom of Cusco § History

The Kingdom of Cusco began when Manco Capac ruled the area around the 13th century. It ended around 1438 when Pachacuti defeated the Chanka people. The kingdom was led by two groups, called the Hurin and Hanan, who each had their own part of the city.

Early rulers like Manco Capac and Sinchi Roca are often part of stories about how Cusco began. Later leaders worked to make Cusco stronger by making agreements and winning over smaller groups. During a big fight with the Chanka people, a young prince named Cusi Yupanqui helped defend the city. Because of his success, he became the new leader, known as Pachacuti, and began changes that helped build a larger empire.

Inca Empire

Main article: Inca Empire

See also: List of wars involving the Inca Empire

Pachacuti turned the Kingdom of Cusco into a large empire named Tawantinsuyu. He set up a central government led by the Sapa Inca, with four provinces: Chinchasuyu, Antisuyu, Kuntisuyu, and Qullasuyu. Pachacuti may have built Machu Picchu as a special home.

Pachacuti sent spies to learn about nearby lands. He invited leaders to join the Inca Empire by offering gifts and promises. Most leaders agreed, and their children learned Inca ways before returning home. This helped the Inca control many places.

Tupac Inca, Pachacuti's son, expanded the empire north and south. Huayna Capac, Tupac Inca's son, added more land to the south, stretching the empire from Peru to parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia.

The Inca Empire had many cultures and languages. Some groups, like the Chachapoya, were not happy being part of the empire. The Inca did not use money; they helped each other through shared work and trading goods.

Civil War

Main article: Inca war of succession

In 1525, a sickness spread among the Incas. The ruler, Huayna Capac, became very ill and died in Quito. Before he died, he had chosen Ninan Cuyuchi to be the next ruler, but Ninan Cuyuchi also fell ill and died before his father did. Huascar learned about his father's death from his mother, who traveled to Cuzco. With two important nobles also sick, Huascar became the best choice to lead, and the leaders in Cuzco agreed.

Meanwhile, Atahualpa was leading armies far away and did not know about these events. He was popular with the soldiers. Huascar saw Atahualpa as a threat because of his strength and support. Though Huascar allowed Atahualpa to stay as leader in Quito, he set conditions: no new military campaigns and recognition of Huascar as the main ruler. Over time, tensions grew between the brothers. Atahualpa built buildings that Huascar saw as untrustworthy actions. Messages between them led to anger, and soon both sides prepared for conflict.

Spanish conquest

Main article: Spanish conquest of Peru

Spanish explorers called conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, came from Panama and reached the Inca lands by 1526. They saw a rich land full of treasures and wanted to claim it. After getting permission from Spain, Pizarro planned to take over the area.

When the Spanish returned in 1532, the Inca Empire was weak. A sickness, maybe smallpox, had spread. Pizarro had very few men—but he used clever tactics and new tools like horses and guns that the Incas had never seen before.

Pizarro met the Inca leader Atahualpa. When things went wrong, the Spanish attacked and captured Atahualpa. They promised to let him go if the Incas gave them gold and silver. The Incas filled a room with treasure, but Pizarro still did not let Atahualpa go. This started a long struggle as the Spanish continued to fight the Inca people.

Neo-Inca State

Main article: Neo-Inca State

Rebellion of Manco Inca

See also: Siege of Cusco

After a Spanish leader tried to take Cusco, Manco Inca recaptured the city in 1536. But the Spanish returned and took Cusco back.

Retreat to Vilcabamba

Manco Inca went to the mountains of Vilcabamba and began the Neo-Inca State. He and his family led there for 36 years. Sometimes they fought the Spanish or encouraged people to stand up to them. In 1572, the Spanish found the last Inca base and captured the final leader, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, ending Inca rule.

Post-Spanish conquest

After the Inca Empire fell, the Spanish rulers treated the local people harshly and destroyed parts of their culture. The Spanish forced families to send people to work in dangerous mines, including the famous mine at Potosí.

The Spanish used local languages, Quechua and Aymara, to share their beliefs in the Andean mountains. Today, these languages are still widely spoken. Over time, the Spanish created schools for local leaders, teaching them reading and writing.