Iranian architecture

Iranian architecture, also called Persian architecture, is the style of building used in Iran and nearby areas like West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. This style of building is very old, going back more than 5,000 years. You can see it from Turkey through Iraq to places like Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Buildings in Iran come in all sizes and uses, from simple houses to huge palaces and mosques.

As cities like the capital, Tehran, grew quickly, many old buildings were torn down to make space for new ones. But even with these changes, Iranian architecture remains special. The American historian Arthur Pope said that architecture has always been the greatest art form of Iran. Iranian buildings are known for their beautiful shapes, clever ways of building arches and domes, and wonderful decorations that are admired around the world.

General characteristics

Traditional Iranian architecture has a long history that has stayed mostly the same, even through hard times. Experts say that even small buildings have a special quality, and the way they look is clear and easy to understand. Big ideas and simple shapes make Iranian buildings special.

Arg-e Bam, a historic citadel and a major example of earthen architecture, built mainly from cob and adobe

People in Iran have used what is available to build for a very long time. Heavy clays found in many places helped create early building methods, like shaped mud that dries in the sun. This method is still used today. Lots of clay and strong mortar also made it possible to build with brick.

Some designs in Iranian architecture have stayed the same throughout history of Iran. You can see this in the size of buildings and their strong, simple shapes. Other common features include high-arched portals inside a recess, columns with special tops, and certain plans and designs that appear in many types of buildings.

Persian-style column at ancient Persepolis, with capital sculpted in double-bull form

The porch, or talar, seen in old tombs near Persepolis, shows up in temples and even modern places like tea-houses. The dome with four arches, common in old times, is still found in many places in Iran today. Ideas like towers reaching toward the sky and inner courtyards with pools are also still used.

Cities in old Iran were sometimes planned in a circular city plan, like Hatra and Gor. Other cities, like Bam and Zaranj, used a square layout.

Iranian architecture can be grouped into different styles over time. One group is from ancient times, including styles from the Achaemenid period like Persepolis and temples. Later styles include designs from the Parthian and Sasanian periods, such as Hatra and Taq Kasra.

In Islamic times, styles developed in different areas and periods. Examples include the Khorasani style from the 7th to 10th century, the Razi style from the 11th century to the Mongol invasions, and the Isfahani style from the 16th century onward, featuring famous buildings like Chehel Sotoun and the Shah Mosque in Naqsh-e Jahan Square.

Pre-Islamic architecture

Main articles: Achaemenid architecture and Sasanian architecture

Sub-periods

Pasargadae

According to Mohammad Karim Pirnia, the ancient architecture of Iran can be divided into the following periods.

Pre-Parsian style

The pre-Parsian style is an early way of building that was used in the Iranian Plateau until around 800 BC, during the time of the Median Empire. Old examples of this style include Teppe Zagghe near Qazvin, Chogha Zanbil, Tepe Sialk, Shahr-e Sukhteh, and Ecbatana.

[Sialk](/wiki/Sialk) necropolis. 3000–4000 BC

[Chogha Zanbil](/wiki/Chogha_Zanbil) ziggurat. 1250 BC

Parsian style

The "Persian style" is a way of building that started around 800 BC during the Median Empire and continued through the Achaemenid Empire until Alexander the Great arrived in the 300s BC.

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Palace of Darius in Susa

Persepolis

Pasargad

Naqsh-e Rostam

Parthian style

Main article: Parthian style

This style of building includes designs from the Seleucid (310–140 BCE), Parthian (247 BCE – 224 CE), and Sassanid (224–651 CE) times, with its highest point in the Sassanid period. Examples include Qal'eh Dokhtar, the royal compounds at Nisa, Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Hatra, the Taq Kasra, Bishapur, and the Palace of Ardashir in Ardeshir Khwarreh (Firuzabad).

Islamic architecture

Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries)

The Islamic era began with the formation of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad in early 7th-century Arabia. The Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia began soon afterwards and ended with the region coming under the control of the Rashidun Caliphs, followed by the Umayyad Caliphs after 661. Early Islamic architecture was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture and Sasanian architecture. Umayyad architecture (661–750) drew on elements of these traditions, mixing them together and adapting them to the needs of the new Muslim patrons.

After the overthrow of the Umayyads in 750 and their replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate, the caliphate's political center shifted further east to the new capital of Baghdad, in present-day Iraq. As a result, Abbasid architecture was even more influenced by Sasanian architecture and by its roots in ancient Mesopotamia. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the power and unity of the Abbasid Caliphate allowed architectural features and innovations from its heartlands to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence, including Iran.

Features from the Umayyad period, such as vaulting, carved stucco, and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period. The four-centred arch, a more sophisticated form of the pointed arch, is first attested during the 9th century in Abbasid monuments at Samarra in Iraq, such as the Qasr al-Ashiq palace. It became widely used in later Iranian architecture. Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, which turned the earlier vegetal motifs of Sasanian and Byzantine traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as seen in the so-called "beveled" style. This style later spread to other regions, including Iran.

Few of the major mosques built during this early Islamic period in Iran have survived in their original form. Remains of a mosque at Susa, probably from the Abbasid period, show that it had a hypostyle prayer hall (a hall with many columns supporting a roof) and a courtyard. Another mosque excavated at Siraf dates to the 9th century. Attached to the mosque was a minaret (tower for the muezzin to issue the call to prayer), the base of which remains, making it the oldest remnants of a minaret in the eastern Islamic world. The Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, one of the major Islamic monuments in Iran, was originally founded towards 771, but it was rebuilt and expanded in 840–841. It too had a courtyard surrounded by hypostyle halls. It continued to be changed and added to in later centuries.

The only major mosque from this early period to still have some of its original form is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Damghan. Though the exact time of its construction is not well-known, its overall form and style may date to the 9th century, or possibly earlier, because of its close similarities with Sassanid architecture. It has a courtyard surrounded by a portico and a hypostyle prayer hall where the central aisle leading to the mihrab (a niche in the wall symbolizing the qibla) is slightly wider than the other aisles. It originally had no minaret, but a tall cylindrical tower was added to it in 1026. This minaret is now the oldest one still standing in Iran.

In secular architecture, the remains of various palaces and residences from this period have also been studied, such as those around Merv (present-day Turkmenistan). They shared many features with earlier Sasanian and Sogdian architecture. Among the recurring elements are iwans and domed chambers. Some of the earlier examples up to the 8th century seem to have had halls with wooden pillars and roofs, while those that probably date to the 9th century seem to have favored domes and vaulted ceilings. They also had stucco decoration in the styles of Samarra. Residences built in the countryside were enclosed by outer walls with semi-circular towers, while inside they had central courtyards or a central domed hall flanked by vaulted halls. Some had four iwans flanking a central courtyard. The Sasanian tradition of building caravanserais along trade routes also continued, with the remains of one such structure in southern Turkmenistan showing a central courtyard surrounded by arcaded galleries with domed roofs.

Emergence of regional style (10th–11th centuries)

After its peak power, the Abbasid Caliphate broke into regional states in the 9th and 10th centuries that were formally under the caliphs in Baghdad but were independent in practice. In Iran and Central Asia, many local and regional dynasties rose to power by the 10th century: Iraq and central Iran were controlled by the Buyid dynasty, northern Iran was ruled by the Bawandids and Ziyarids, and the northeastern regions of Khurasan and Transoxiana were ruled by the Samanids, with other dynasties arising in Central Asia soon after.

It is around this time that many of the special features of later Iranian and Central Asian architecture first appeared, including the use of baked brick for both building and decoration, the use of glazed tile for surface decoration, and the development of muqarnas (three-dimensional geometric vaulting) from squinches. Hypostyle mosques continued to be built and there is also evidence of multi-domed mosques, though most mosques were changed or rebuilt in later eras. The Jameh Mosque of Na'in, one of the oldest surviving congregational mosques in Iran, contains some of the best-preserved features from this period, including decorative brickwork, Kufic inscriptions, and rich stucco decoration with vine scrolls and acanthus leaves that draw from the earlier styles of Samarra.

Remains of the Jameh Mosque of Siraf (9th century)

Another important architectural trend to appear in the 10th to 11th centuries was the development of mausolea, which took on large forms for the first time. One type of mausoleum was the tomb tower, such as the Gonbad-e Qabus (circa 1006–7), while the other main type was the domed square, such as the Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara (before 943).

Seljuk era (11th–13th centuries)

Further information: Great Seljuk architecture

Turkic peoples began moving west across Central Asia and towards the Middle East from the 8th century onward, eventually converting to Islam and becoming important forces in the region. The most significant of these were the Seljuk Turks, who formed the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other large areas in Central Asia and the Middle East.

While the peak of the Great Seljuks was short-lived, it marks a major point in the history of Islamic art and architecture in Iran and Central Asia, starting a growth in support and new artistic forms. Much of the Seljuk architectural heritage was destroyed during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. However, compared to pre-Seljuk Iran, more monuments and artifacts from the Seljuk period have survived, allowing scholars to study this era in more detail. Several neighboring dynasties and empires of the time, including the Qarakhanids, the Ghaznavids, and the Ghurids, built monuments in a very similar style. A general tradition of architecture was shared across most of the eastern Islamic world (Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the northern Indian subcontinent) during the Seljuk period and its decline, from the 11th to 13th centuries. This time is also seen as a "classical" age of Central Asian architecture.

The most important religious monument from the Great Seljuk period is the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, which was expanded and changed by various Seljuk leaders in the late 11th century and early 12th century. Two large domed chambers were added to it in the late 11th century. Four large iwans were then built around the courtyard around the early 12th century, leading to the four-iwan plan in mosque architecture. The four-iwan plan quickly became popular and was used in other major mosques around this time, including those of Ardestan and Zavareh, as well as in secular architecture. It was probably also used for madrasas, a new type of building introduced around this time, though none of the Seljuk madrasas have been well preserved.

Lodging places (khān, or caravanserai) for travelers and their animals generally had simple rather than fancy architecture, with rubble masonry, strong walls, and little comfort. Large caravanserais were built to support trade and show Seljuk power in the countryside. They usually had a building with a strong outside appearance, a big entrance, and an inside courtyard surrounded by various halls, including iwans. Some notable examples, only partly preserved, are the caravanserais of Ribat-i Malik (c. 1068–1080) and Ribat-i Sharaf (12th century) in Transoxiana and Khorasan, respectively.

The Seljuks also continued to build "tower tombs", an Iranian building type from earlier times, such as the Toghrul Tower built in Ray (south of present-day Tehran) in 1139. More new was the introduction of mausoleums with a square or polygonal floor plan, which later became a common form of large tombs. Early examples of this are the two Kharraqan Towers (1068 and 1093) near Qazvin (northern Iran), which have octagonal shapes, and the large Mausoleum of Sanjar (c. 1152) in Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), which has a square base.

Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic Qarakhanids ruled in Transoxiana and built many impressive structures in Bukhara and Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan). Known Qarakhanid monuments include the great congregational mosque in Bukhara, of which only the Kalyan Minaret (c. 1127) remains, the nearby Minaret of Vabkent (1141), and several Qarakhanid mausoleums with grand fronts, such as those in Uzgen (present-day Kyrgyzstan) from the second half of the 12th century.

Further east, the first major Turkic dynasty was the Ghaznavids, who became independent in the late 10th century and ruled from Ghazna, in present-day Afghanistan. In the second half of the 12th century, the Ghurids took over as the main power in the area from northern India to the edge of the Caspian Sea. Among the most notable monuments of these two dynasties are several fancy brick towers and minarets which have survived as single structures. Their exact uses are not known. They include the Tower of Mas'ud III near Ghazna (early 12th century) and the Minaret of Jam built by the Ghurids (late 12th century), also in present-day Afghanistan.

As the Great Seljuks weakened in the 12th century, various other dynasties (often also of Turkic origin) formed smaller states and empires. In Iran and Central Asia, the Khwarazm-Shahs, formerly under the Seljuks and Qara Khitai, grew in power and formed the Khwarazmian Empire, taking over much of the area and conquering the Ghurids in the early 13th century, only to fall soon after to the Mongol invasions. The site of the former Khwarazmian capital, Kunya-Urgench (in present-day Turkmenistan), has several monuments from the Khwarazmian Empire period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi (possibly the tomb of Il-Arslan) and the Mausoleum of Sultan Tekesh.

Ilkhanids (13th–14th centuries)

Main article: Ilkhanid architecture

From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia were ruled by two major dynasties from the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, the Ilkhanate (1256–1353) and the Timurids (1370–1506). This time saw the building of some of the largest and most ambitious Iranian monuments of the Islamic world. The Ilkhanids were originally traditional Mongol nomads, but at the end of the 13th century, Ghazan Khan (r. 1295–1304) converted to Islam and helped a cultural and economic revival where Iranian urban culture was very important. Ilkhanid rulers, like the Muzaffarids and the Jalayirids, also supported new buildings.

Ilkhanid architecture built on earlier Iranian traditions. In particular, more focus was placed on inside spaces and how to arrange them. Rooms were made taller, while transverse vaulting was used and walls were opened with arches, allowing more light and air inside. Muqarnas, which was before used only to cover small areas like squinches, was now used to cover whole domes and vaults just for decoration. The Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad in Natanz (1307–8), for example, is covered inside by an elaborate muqarnas dome made from stucco hanging below the pyramidal vault that roofs the building.

Brick was still the main building material, but more color was added through the use of tile mosaic, which meant cutting tiles of different colors into pieces and fitting them together to make larger patterns, especially geometric motifs and floral designs. Carved stucco decoration also continued. Some outstanding examples from this time in Iran include a wall of carved stucco in the Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran in Linjan (near Isfahan), and a mihrab added in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. The latter is one of the best examples of Islamic sculptural art from this time, with many layers of deeply-carved plant designs, along with a carved writing.

Various mosques were built or enlarged during this time, usually using the four-iwan plan for congregational mosques (e.g. at Varamin and Kirman), except in the northwest, where cold winters meant open courtyards were not wanted, as at the Jameh Mosque of Ardabil (now ruined). Another feature of the Ilkhanid period was the building of large mosque entrances topped by twin minarets, as seen at the Jameh Mosque of Yazd. Caravanserais were built again, although the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad is the only one that survives.

The most impressive monument still standing from this time is the Soltaniyeh Mausoleum built for Sultan Uljaytu (r. 1304–1317), a huge dome on a multi-level octagonal base with inside and outside galleries. Only the domed building remains today, missing much of its original blue tiles, but it was once the center of a larger religious complex including a mosque, a hospital, and living areas. Smaller tombs and shrines for local Sufis were also built or fixed by Ilkhanid leaders, such as the shrine of Bayazid Bastami in the town of Bastam, the already-mentioned Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran, and the already-mentioned Tomb of Abd-al-Samad. Also in Bastam, the Ilkhanids built a traditional tower tomb to hold the remains of Uljaytu's baby son. Unusually, instead of standing alone, the tomb was placed behind the qibla wall of the town's main mosque – a design also seen in some contemporary Mamluk architecture.

Timurids (14th–15th centuries)

Main article: Timurid architecture

Safavids and Uzbeks (16th–18th centuries)

Further information: Safavid art

The Safavids, who created a large Shi'i empire in the 16th century covering all of Iran and some nearby areas, at first followed the traditions of Timurid architecture. To make this tradition into a new imperial style, Safavid architects made it even bigger. Safavid architecture simplified Timurid architecture to some extent, creating large building groups arranged around more fixed, formal views that look more ceremony-like, with more uniform outside walls and simpler vault designs. At the same time, buildings were carefully planned and often had an open layout that made them pleasant to be in. The most typical design was tile mosaic, used on a large scale. The decoration often served to hide rather than show the structure of the buildings. This Safavid style started in Isfahan and later spread to other parts of the empire.

Few Safavid monuments have survived from before the time of Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629). The most important example is the tomb and religious complex of Sheikh Safi al-Din in Ardabil. This complex had been growing since the time of Safi al-Din (d. 1334), who started a Sufi order that Isma'il I (r. 1501–1524), the first Safavid ruler, linked himself to. Safavid work on the site began in the early 16th century, when Isma'il's small domed tomb was built here. His successor, Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576), did the first major Safavid building at the complex. The most important structure added was the Jannat Sarai, a large octagonal building in the same tradition as the old Ilkhanid mausoleum in Soltaniyeh, perhaps meant to be the domed tomb of Tahmasp I. Abbas I also made more changes and additions to the site after this.

Contemporary with the Safavids in Iran were other leaders and groups in Central Asia, such as the Shaybanids and other Uzbek tribal leaders. Big buildings continued to be built here, using the traditional Timurid style. In Bukhara, the Shaybanids created the current Po-i-Kalyan complex, bringing together the Qarakhanid-era Kalan Minaret, fixing the old mosque in 1514, and adding the large Mir-i 'Arab Madrasa (1535–6). Later, in Samarkand, the local leader Yalangtush Bi Alchin gave the Registan its present look by building two new madrasas next to Ulugh Beg's madrasa. The Sherdar Madrasa (1616–1636) copies the shape of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa, while the Tilla Kar Madrasa (1646–1660) is both a mosque and a madrasa. Building became less important in the area after the 17th century, except in Khiva. The Friday mosque of Khiva, with its special hall of wood columns, was rebuilt in this form in 1788–9.

Safavid Isfahan

Abbas I made Isfahan his capital and started the biggest building program of the Safavid time. As a result, most saved Safavid monuments are in this one city. Abbas I moved the political and economic center of the city from its old place near the old Jameh Mosque to a new area near the Zayandeh River to the south, where a new planned city was made. It includes a huge Grand Bazaar, lined with caravanserais, which opens through a big entrance to a wide, square public area, the Maidan-e Shah or Naqsh-e Jahan, built between 1590 and 1602. The whole square is edged by a two-story arcade and shows Abbas I's desire to be one of the greatest rulers in the world. Along with the bazaar's entrance, three other buildings stand at the middle of each side of the square: the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque (1603–1619), the Shah Mosque (1611–c. 1630), and the Ali Qapu, a palace entrance and building started around 1597 and finished under Abbas II, around 1660.

Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan is the best example of Safavid-era architecture.

The two mosques on the square each have big entrances, but because of the difference between the direction of the qibla and the way the square is turned, both mosques are built at an angle to it and their entrance areas bend on the way in. Both have prayer rooms covered by a single large, double-shell dome, though the Shah Mosque's prayer room is also next to two hypostyle rooms. Unlike in Timurid buildings, the inside dome shapes are not split into shapes and have a smooth surface instead. A feeling of lightness is made instead by the area of arches, squinches, and windows, with the Shah Mosque's prayer room walls also having open archways. On the outside, the domes have an "onion" shape (bulging on the sides and pointy on top). While the Shah Mosque has minarets and a old central courtyard with four iwans, the Lutfallah Mosque has no minarets and is different from all other Safavid mosques by being just the single domed room. The inside of both mosques is completely covered in colored tiles, mainly blue, which were fixed in the 1930s using the few remaining original tiles as a guide.

To the west of the Maidan-i Shah square was a large palace area of gardens and buildings. The most important remaining building, Chehel Sotoun ("Forty Columns"), is dated to 1647 by an writing on it, but may have been started earlier. In 1706–7, a deep, wide porch with columns was added to it, giving it its present look. The other well-known remaining building, Hasht Behesht, mostly dates to the late 17th century. To the west of the palace grounds is a long, wide road called the Chaharbagh ("Four Gardens") which ends in the south at the Si-o-se-pol ("Bridge of thirty-three arches") bridge, built in 1602. The bridge has arcades and a wide middle path for cars and animals as well as side paths for people. Further down, the Khaju Bridge (1650) is one of the best buildings from the time of Abbas II. Like the Si-o-se-pol, it mixes looks with use, but it is more complex and shows the highest point of Safavid bridge building. It has two levels, each with a wide middle path for cars and side paths for people along its side arches. In the middle of the bridge is a bigger viewing building with an octagonal shape.

These bridges link the city center with the south side of the Zayandeh River, where royal Safavid hunting areas were once found. After 1604, a Christian Armenian area, New Julfa, was also made here. About 30 churches were built in the area, of which 13 remain today, from the 17th and early 18th centuries. The churches mixed Armenian features with the current Safavid style, as seen in the Vank Cathedral (or Holy Saviour Cathedral), now in its present shape from around 1656.

Zands and Qajars (18th–early 20th centuries)

Persian domes

Main article: Persian domes

The Sasanian Empire built the first large domes in Iran, such as the Palace of Ardashir and Qal'eh Dokhtar. After that, Persian style influenced many other places, and domes became important in Muslim architecture.

Later, during the Il-Khanate period, new ideas helped build taller domes. The most famous is the Dome of Soltaniyeh in Zanjan, Iran, which stands 50 meters tall. During the Safavid era, leader Abbas the Great rebuilt the city of Isfahan, using old designs but making them even more beautiful.

Persian domes are special because they are covered in colorful tiles. This style started in the Seljuk era and was made perfect by the Safavids. The famous Shah Mosque in Isfahan, finished in 1629, stands 53 meters tall and has layers of domes hidden inside.

Contemporary Iranian architecture

Further information: Architecture of Tehran

Contemporary architecture in Iran began in the early 1920s. Some designers, like Andre Godard, built structures such as the National Museum of Iran that remind us of Iran's history. Others mixed traditional styles with modern designs, like the Tehran University main campus.

Architects such as Heydar Ghiai and Houshang Seyhoun created new designs. Dariush Borbor combined modern architecture with local traditions. The Azadi Tower, finished in 1971, is a famous landmark in Tehran, designed by Hossein Amanat using ideas from historic Iranian architecture. The Milad Tower, completed in 2007, is the tallest tower in Iran and one of the tallest in the world.

Modern Iranian architecture often uses brickwork in smart ways, fitting the dry climate and inspired by old building methods and traditional brickwork techniques.

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Iran Senate House Traditional Persian ideas have been used by Heydar Ghiai to create new modern Iranian architecture.

[Tehran's Museum of Contemporary Arts](/wiki/Tehran_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art) designed by Kamran Diba is based on traditional Iranian elements such as [Badgirs](/wiki/Badgir), and yet has a spiraling interior reminiscent of [Frank Lloyd Wright's Guggenheim](/wiki/Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum).

Tehran University College of Social Sciences shows traces of architecture from [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis).

Iranian architects

The Society of Iranian Diplomate Architects started on January 30, 1945. Some founders were Vartan Avanessian, Mohsen Foroughi, and Keyghobad Zafar. At that time, many foreign architects were well-known in Iran. The group made a magazine called Architecte to help Iranian architects get more attention. In 1966, another group called the Association of Iranian Architects was created by several architects including Vartan Avanessian and Keyghobad Zafar.

Some Iranian architects have won important awards, like the A' Design Award in 2018 and the Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Some of their famous works include Bagh-e-Ferdowsi in Tehran, buildings in Shushtar New Town, and places like Ali Qapu, Chehel Sutun, and Hasht Behesht in Isfahan.

UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites

Ziggurats such as the UNESCO designated World Heritage Site of Chogha Zanbil, which relieved the flat monotony of the southern Khuzestan plane, were but "ritual imitations of the familiar sacred mountains which ring the Iranian plateau".

This is a list of special places chosen by UNESCO that show beautiful Iranian architecture. These places were either built by people from Iran or made in the style of Iranian architecture.

Inside Iran: