Kingdom of Aksum

The Kingdom of Aksum, or the Aksumite Empire, was a kingdom in North East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. It was based in what is now Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. It also included parts of present-day Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. The kingdom began around the 1st century and grew from an earlier group of people called the Dʿmt. Its main city was Axum.

Aksum became one of the great powers of the world in the 3rd century. It was strong and important, like Persia, Rome, and China. The kingdom grew bigger under many kings and controlled lands in western Yemen. During this time, Aksum started making its own coins. These coins have been found far away, even in places like Caesarea and southern India.

Aksum was also a key place for trade between Rome and India, which helped it become very wealthy. Because of these ties, Aksum adopted Christianity as its state religion in the middle of the 4th century. Later, under a powerful king named Kaleb of Axum, Aksum grew even larger by taking control of parts of Yemen. At its biggest, the kingdom covered about 2,500,000 km².

Eventually, Aksum began to weaken. Changes in trade routes and challenges from other powers led to its decline. By around the year 960, the kingdom had collapsed, and its history became less known for many years.

Etymology

Some historians think the name Aksum comes from an old language and means "a green and dense garden" or "full of grass."

Because people long ago didn’t know much about the world's shape, old writings from the Byzantine Empire sometimes said that Ethiopia was in "India". This mistake led some to call the kingdom the Kingdom of the Aksumite Indians.

History

Early history

Before the city of Aksum became important, the areas of Eritrea and the Tigray Plateau in northern Ethiopia were part of a kingdom called dʿmt. Evidence from digging shows that this kingdom was influenced by Sheba, which is now Yemen. People once thought the Sabaeans, or people from Sheba, started what became known as Semitic culture in Ethiopia, but this idea is no longer believed to be true. Their influence was small and mostly included introducing a way of writing that later developed into the Geʽez script, used in Ethiopia today.

During the early growth of Aksum, it changed from a small local place to a more important power, but much about this time remains unclear. Old stone tools have been found near Gobedra, west of Aksum. Digs at Betä Giyorgis, northwest of Aksum, show that people lived there as far back as between the seventh and fourth centuries before the Common Era. More digs in the Stele Park in Aksum show that the area was active from the start of the Common Era. The land around Aksum, with its hills and streams, may have been a good reason people first settled there.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite kingdom began between 150 BCE and 150 CE. In its early days, it seems to have been made up of smaller kingdoms led by local kings who were loyal to a main king known as the “king of kings.” It was not yet a single royal family; when a king of kings died, a new one might be chosen from among the other kings.

Rise of Aksum

The first time Aksum appears in history is in a trading guide called the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, likely from the mid-first century AD. It mentions Aksum along with places like Adulis and Ptolemais of the Hunts, ruled by someone named Zoskales. The area was known for producing ivory and tortoise shells. Even early on, Aksum was part of the important trade route between Rome and India.

Aksum’s control of the port city Adulis helped it trade Ethiopian goods for things brought from other places. Writers like Pliny the Elder talked about this port, which was three days from Coloe, where ivory was first sold, and five days from Aksum. Trade across the Red Sea, linking Rome in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, was very important for Aksum’s success. The city grew by selling items like ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned other goods such as hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. By the second century AD, Ptolemy called Aksum a powerful kingdom. During this time, Aksum became more organized, with cities, its own money made of gold, silver, and copper, better farming, and a strong army.

Around 200 AD, Aksum began to expand into Southern Arabia, setting up a place in al-Maafer and sometimes fighting with groups there. Kings GDRT and ʽDBH led soldiers to the area. Inscriptions from Arabian rulers call them “nagasi of Aksum and Habashat.” A metal object found in Tigray also mentions a king named GDR negus of Aksum. Later in the third century, kings called mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns fought in Arabia. A Greek writing in Eritrea, called the Monumentum Adulitanum, says that around the mid to late third century (about 240 to 260 AD), an unknown Aksumite king expanded the kingdom into the Ethiopian Highlands and the Arabian Peninsula, reaching as far as Lake Tana and the borders of Egypt.

By the end of the third century AD, Aksum was known to Mani, a prophet, as one of the four great powers of the world, along with Rome, Persia, and China. As Aksum grew, its buildings became more impressive. Early stone markers, called stelae, started simple but later became huge towers made of granite. Aksum’s buildings used large granite blocks, smaller stones for walls, mud for holding things together, bricks for roofs, and wooden parts called “monkey-heads.” The walls leaned inward and had special spaces for strength. Cities like Aksum, Adulis, and Matara had big palace-like buildings. In the early sixth century, a traveler named Cosmas Indicopleustes visited Aksum and described a palace with four towers and bronze statues. Aksum also had rows of granite thrones, possibly with metal statues for old gods. These thrones had panels with writings about kings like Ousanas, Ezana, Kaleb, and Wazeba.

King Ezana became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the fourth century. Around 340 AD, his coins and writings changed from old symbols to Christian ones. Turning to Christianity connected Aksum culturally to the Mediterranean and politically to the Byzantine Empire, which saw itself as protecting Christianity. Three writings on the Ezana Stone talk about King Ezana becoming Christian and two military campaigns he led, one against the Noba and another against the Beja. The writing says the Noba lived near where the Nile and Atbara rivers meet. It also mentions a group called the “red Noba,” possibly the same as the “other Nobades” written about by a Nubian king named Silko.

King Kaleb sent soldiers to help the Christian community in Yemen who were being treated badly by a ruler named Dhu Nuwas. Kaleb became known for conquering Yemen and took the title of king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as parts of the coastal plain and highlands of Yemen, and “all their Arabs.” Dhu Nuwas was removed and killed, and Kaleb put an Arab leader named Esimiphaios, also called Sumuafa Ashawa, in charge. But after five years, Esimiphaios was removed in a takeover led by an Aksumite named Abraha. Kaleb tried to remove Abraha twice but was defeated both times. After Abraha’s death, his son Masruq Abraha kept control of Yemen and continued to send money to Aksum. But his half-brother Ma'd-Karib rebelled. After being turned down by the Roman Emperor Justinian the Great for help, he allied with the Sassanid Persian Emperor Khosrow I. Khosrow I sent soldiers led by Vahrez to remove the king of Yemen. The war ended with the Siege of Sana'a in 570 AD. After Masruq died, Ma'd-Karib’s son Saif took over. In 575 AD, after Saif was killed, Vahrez led another army of 8,000 soldiers, ending Aksum’s control of Yemen and becoming the ruler there.

Decline

Aksum’s trade in the Red Sea suffered because of Persian victories in Egypt and Syria and losses in Yemen. But an even bigger change came with the rise of Islam in the early seventh century and the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate. At first, Aksum and its new Islamic neighbors had good relations. In 615 AD, Muslims leaving persecution in Mecca were welcomed in Aksum, an event known as the First Hijrah. In 630 AD, Muhammad sent soldiers against possible pirate attacks by people from Abyssinia. Trade with the Roman and Byzantine areas stopped as Arabs took over eastern Roman lands. Because of this, Aksum became less wealthy, lost its money-making system, and stopped making coins in the early eighth century. The growth of Islamic influence nearby also contributed to the rise of the Harla Kingdom.

The growth of Islam was not the only reason Aksum declined. The Beja nomads, moving because of poor land, also played a part. At the end of the seventh century, a strong Beja group called the Zanafaj entered the Eritrean plateau through the Gash-Barka valley. They attacked and took over parts of the Eritrean highlands, which Aksum could no longer control. This meant Aksum lost its connection to Red Sea ports.

Around the same time, people in Aksum moved farther inland to the highlands for safety, and the capital was moved from Aksum to a new place called Kubar. Arab writers described Ethiopia, no longer called Aksum, as still powerful but without control of most of the coast or its past supporters. While land was lost in the north, Ethiopia gained land in the south, and though not a rich trading place anymore, it still attracted Arab merchants. The new capital was probably in southern Tigray or Angot, but its exact location is unknown today. There were problems like war, disease, and poor rains mentioned in the ninth century. During the rule of Degna Djan in the ninth century, the empire kept growing south and supported missionary work south of Angot.

Gudit's invasion

Local stories say that around 960 AD, a queen named Gudit, also called Yodit or Ésato, attacked and destroyed Aksum, burning churches and destroying writings. Although some modern scholars question if she really existed, stories about her come from old Ethiopian traditions. Arab writer Ibn Hawqal, writing around 980 AD, mentions a queen of Abyssinia who had ruled for thirty years and may have been Gudit. The tale of Gudit being Jewish comes mostly from a Scottish traveler named James Bruce, though other scholars have reasons to doubt this.

Gudit was said to be followed by a ruler named Dagna-Jan, whose temple name was Anbasa Wudem. During her time, people from Aksum moved south. One Ethiopian story says she ruled for forty years and was later removed by Mara Tekla Haymanot in 1137 AD, who started the Zagwe dynasty by having children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.

After a short uncertain time, the Aksumite Empire was followed by the Zagwe dynasty in the eleventh or twelfth century (most likely around 1137 AD). Yet the end of Aksum did not mean the end of its traditions. For example, buildings from the Zagwe time at Lalibela and Yemrehana Krestos Church show strong influence from Aksum.

Society

The people of the Kingdom of Aksum spoke languages such as Geʽez, along with other languages like those of the Agaw people. They lived in areas that are now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. There were also Greek-speaking communities in cities like Ptolemais Theron and Adulis.

Aksum had many settlements in the highlands. Farmers used clever ways to grow crops, like using water and making steps on hillsides. They grew grains such as teff, sorghum, and wheat, as well as vegetables like lentils and chickpeas. They also raised animals like cattle, sheep, and goats to help feed many people and grow the kingdom.

Culture

The Empire of Aksum had many interesting features. It had its own special way of writing called the Geʽez script. This writing was later changed to include vowels and could be used for many languages.

Around 1700 years ago, big stone towers were built to mark the graves of kings and important people. The most famous of these is the Obelisk of Aksum.

Under Emperor Ezana, Aksum started following Coptic Christianity around the year 325. This led to the creation of important Christian churches in Ethiopia and Eritrea today.

Greek was used in government and trade because of the Greek communities living in Aksum. The local language, Geʽez, was also used in writing and became very important.

Many religious books were translated into Geʽez, including parts of the Bible and other important texts.

Before becoming Christian, the people of Aksum believed in many gods. With the influence of Judaism and later Christianity, their beliefs changed over time.

Aksum was one of the first places in Africa to make its own coins. These coins were used for trade and to show the empire’s importance.

Big buildings and stone towers were important parts of Aksum’s architecture. These towers, called stelae, marked important places and showed the skills of the builders.

Aksum was a key trading center. It sold items like ivory, gold, and spices. It traded with places as far away as India and the Roman Empire. The empire grew rich from these trade routes.

The land around Aksum was good for farming, which helped support the large empire. However, over time, changes in climate and farming practices made it hard to keep the land productive.

In literature

Further information: Ethiopian literature and Ethiopian historiography

The Aksumite Empire appears in stories where it is a close friend of Byzantium. In one book series by David Drake and Eric Flint, the ruler Kaleb faces challenges during his time.

In another series by Elizabeth Wein, characters find safety in Aksum after big changes happen in their home, Camelot. Kaleb leads at first, then passes leadership to his son, Gebre Meskal, during a tough time.