Pagan kingdom

The Pagan kingdom was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that make up modern-day Myanmar. It began as a small 9th-century settlement called Pagan by the Mranma people, who were the ancestors of today's Bamar people. Over time, it grew into a powerful empire. By the 1050s and 1060s, under King Anawrahta, it united the Irrawaddy valley and surrounding areas for the first time.

At its height in the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia, alongside the Khmer Empire. It stretched south into the upper Malay Peninsula, east to the Salween River, north near the current China border, and west into northern Arakan and the Chin Hills. The kingdom helped spread the Burmese language, culture, and Theravada Buddhism throughout the region.

Pagan's rulers built thousands of Buddhist temples, with over 10,000 built in the Bagan area alone, though only about 2,000 remain today. However, the kingdom began to weaken in the mid-13th century. Problems within the kingdom and attacks from outside forces, including the Mongols, ended the kingdom in 1287. This led to a long period of division in the region.

Names

The old name for the kingdom in the Pali language was Arimaddanapura, which means "Foe-Crushing City." In Burmese, the kingdom is called ပုဂံ (pugam), often written as Pagan or Bagan in English.

The ruler of Arimaddana once had a disagreement with a king from Ceylon. Later, another king from Ceylon made peace through a friendly letter, which helped Buddhist monks from both places work together better.

History

Origins

The Pagan kingdom started from old stories and discoveries. Tales from the 1700s say it began in 167 AD when Pyusawhti began ruling at Pagan (Bagan). Some stories connect it to ancient India and the family of the Buddha.

Modern research says the Pagan kingdom started in the mid-to-late 800s AD when people from the Nanzhao kingdom moved into the area. Before this, the Pyu people lived there and built early towns and cities. The Pyu had ways to manage water and created one of Southeast Asia’s first big cities.

Early Pagan

Over time, people from the Nanzhao kingdom, called Burmans, settled in Pagan. They brought their own traditions but also took on many Pyu customs, especially in religion and culture. By the mid-900s, Pagan had become an important place, growing stronger and controlling more land.

Pagan Empire

In 1044 AD, a prince named Anawrahta took control. He made Pagan a big kingdom, bringing together many areas around the Irrawaddy valley. Anawrahta built canals to help grow rice and made Pagan strong and wealthy.

Later kings kept building and improving the kingdom. They created temples, expanded their land, and made Pagan a center for culture and religion. The kingdom reached its height under kings like Narapatisithu and Htilominlo, who built many famous temples and organized the government.

Decline

Over time, the kingdom began to weaken. Giving away land for religious reasons reduced the resources the king could use. By the mid-1200s, the kingdom struggled to manage its lands and keep control.

Fall

In the late 1200s, the Mongols from China invaded Pagan. Though the damage may not have been huge, the kingdom could not stay together. After the king died, different parts of the kingdom broke away and formed their own rule. By the early 1300s, Pagan was no longer a large kingdom, though some of its leaders still had influence in smaller areas.

Government

Pagan's government used a special system called the mandala. The king ruled the main area, called the pyi, and managed faraway places as tributary states, called naingngans. The closer a place was to the capital, the more control the king had. Each area had three levels: provinces (taing), towns (myo), and villages (ywa), with the king's court in the middle.

The main area was the Dry Zone of Upper Myanmar, about 150 to 250 kilometres from the capital. It included important places like Kyaukse and Minbu, which helped grow food and gather people for the army. The king ruled the capital and trusted family members governed key areas. Farther places were ruled by local leaders or appointed governors who sent gifts to the king but mostly made their own decisions. Over time, Pagan tried to bring important areas like Lower Myanmar closer to the capital by appointing its own governors, but full control took many years. In distant areas like Arakan and the Shan Hills, the king had little say and only received occasional gifts.

The court was the heart of government, handling all important decisions. It included the king, royal family members, ministers, and other leaders. The king was the top leader but shared duties with the court, which grew larger over time. By the early 1200s, a group called the Hluttaw helped manage daily tasks and the army. The court also handled fairness and justice, with early kings setting rules for decisions.

The military started with a small group protecting the palace and grew to include many people called up for wars. Local leaders provided soldiers based on their area's population. The army included foot soldiers, elephant teams, horse riders, and navy forces.

Main article: Military history of Pagan Dynasty

Economy

The economy of Pagan was mainly based on agriculture, with trade playing a smaller role. The growth of the Pagan Empire and new farmlands helped the population grow and made the economy stronger. With little warfare, the economy stayed healthy.

Agriculture was very important from the beginning in the 9th century. People in Pagan used new ways to manage water, which helped them grow more food. This allowed the kingdom to grow into areas that were dry and control more land.

Pagan also focused on trade through its ports, connecting to places like China and the Indian Ocean. Trade brought in valuable goods like coral and pearls, but it was not the main part of the economy.

Pagan did not use coins like other places. Instead, they used pieces of silver, called kyats, as money. This made trade a bit more complicated, and sometimes people traded goods directly instead of using money.

Main article: Michael Aung-Thwin

Main article: kyat (unit)

Main article: Tripiṭaka

Culture and society

Pagan society had different classes. At the top was the royal family, followed by officials, artisans, and commoners. The Buddhist clergy was important but not a ruling class.

Most people were commoners. Some worked for the king and got land in return. Others paid taxes but did not work directly for the king. Some worked for private owners or temples.

The main language was Burmese, but Pyu and Mon were also used. Burmese became more common over time. The Burmese alphabet spread during this time. Writing was still new, and most people learned about Buddhism through stories and art.

Pagan’s religion mixed Theravada Buddhism with other traditions like Mahayana Buddhism, Hindu practices, and local beliefs. Theravada Buddhism became more important, especially when the king supported it. Temples were built, but many people still followed older customs, like worshipping spirits.

Pagan is famous for its buildings, with over 2000 temples still standing today. The city planning and water management helped the kingdom’s economy. Temples were built in two main styles: solid stupas and hollow temples used for worship. The stupas changed over time, becoming more bell-shaped. Hollow temples had different styles, like one or four main entrances, and some had special pentagonal shapes.

Legacy

The Pagan kingdom was very important for Myanmar and Southeast Asia. For 250 years, it helped the Burmese language and culture become stronger. It also helped the Bamar people and their traditions spread.

Pagan helped protect and grow Theravada Buddhism. At that time, this type of Buddhism was not doing well in other places, but Pagan gave it a safe home. Because of Pagan's support, Theravada Buddhism later spread to places like northern Thailand, central Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.