Pharaoh

The Pharaoh was the monarch of ancient Egypt. This title started in the Eighteenth Dynasty and later described all rulers of Egypt before that time. The word "Pharaoh" first described the king's work, not the ruler themselves. The first known use of the title was in a letter to Akhenaten, who ruled around 1353–1336 BCE. Historians now use "Pharaoh" for all Egyptian rulers from around 3150 BCE until Egypt joined the Roman Republic in 30 BCE.

In ancient Egypt, kings had many roles. They led the country and were important in religion. As the link between gods and people, the pharaoh owned all land, made laws, collected taxes, and led the military. They also did religious ceremonies and decided where to build temples. One key job was keeping Maat, the balance that kept the world in order.

Pharaohs wore special crowns to show their power. Before Egypt was one country, rulers of the north wore the Deshret or "Red Crown," and rulers of the south wore the Hedjet or "White Crown." After the two lands joined, the Pschent, a combination of both crowns, became the main crown. Over time, other headpieces like the Khat, Nemes, and Khepresh were also used.

Etymology

The word pharaoh comes from an ancient Egyptian phrase that means "great house." It first meant the royal palace. Later, it was used as a respectful way to talk to the king.

During the New Kingdom, around the Eighteenth Dynasty, the word pharaoh began to mean the ruler. By the Twenty-Second Dynasty, it was a common title used before the king's name. The word changed from describing a building to becoming a title for the ruler.

Functions

Main article: Functions of the Pharaoh

The pharaoh was the most important leader in ancient Egypt. He stood between the people and the gods. In temples, the pharaoh did special rituals to honor the gods. He kept the land safe, made sure everyone was treated fairly, and helped farms have enough food.

Pictures and statues showed the pharaoh looking like the gods. But stories said he was a humble servant to the gods. His job was to keep peace and order. He asked the gods for good weather, shared food when there was little, and made sure land was fair for everyone. As the leader, he protected Egypt's borders. The pharaoh made laws to help people live together peacefully.

Regalia

Main article: Regalia of the Pharaoh

Scepters and staves were important signs of power in ancient Egypt. One of the first royal scepters was found in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos. Kings were often shown with a staff, like Anedjib on stone vessels. The heqa-scepter, sometimes called the shepherd's crook, has been used since prehistoric Egypt. Another important scepter is the was-scepter, a long staff with an animal head, from the First Dynasty.

The Uraeus, a rearing cobra, was thought to protect the king. The earliest evidence of this symbol is from the time of Den in the first dynasty. The cobra was believed to guard the king.

Crowns and headdresses

Main article: Crowns of Egypt

The ancient Egyptian pharaohs wore many special crowns and headdresses. These showed their important roles as rulers.

The Deshret, or red crown, represented the ruler of Lower Egypt. The Hedjet, or white crown, stood for the ruler of Upper Egypt. Later, rulers combined these two into the Pschent double crown.

Other important headdresses included the khat, which was like a cloth tied at the back, and the Nemes, a common royal head covering. Kings also wore the Atef crown, linked to the god Osiris, and the Khepresh, or blue crown, often seen in battle or ceremonies.

Even though many paintings and statues show pharaohs wearing these crowns, no actual crowns have ever been found. Scholars think crowns may have been used in special rituals.

Titles

Main article: Ancient Egyptian royal titulary

In ancient Egypt, kings had many special names to show their power. Early kings used three main names. The oldest name was called the Horus name. Another name was the Nesu Bity name. There was also the Nebty name.

Some kings had more names, like the Golden Horus name, and two special names called the prenomen and nomen. These names were often written inside special shapes called cartouches. Later, kings had five names to show their rule.

Divinity

Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh was often seen as a god. People believed this started before 3000 BCE and influenced many other places. The Pharaoh was thought to connect people with the gods. This was different from places like Sumer, where leaders were not seen as gods.

During a time called the Early Dynastic Period, the Pharaoh was seen as the god Horus. By a certain time, the Pharaoh’s mother was said to be chosen by the sun god Ra. Texts from pyramids described the Pharaoh as formed by the god Atum before anything else existed. Inscriptions called the Pharaoh the “good god” or “perfect god.” Later, during the New Kingdom, the Pharaoh was also linked to the god Amun-Re. Even when Persian rulers controlled Egypt, they were still called divine in Egyptian writings. This idea continued when Alexander the Great took over Egypt and for the leaders of the Ptolemaic Kingdom that followed.

Classical Greece

From Classical Greece, there are fewer mentions of the Pharaoh being seen as a god. One hymn from the time of the Ptolemaic leaders talks about the Pharaoh’s divinity, but it might show Greek ideas as well. The historian Herodotus said that Egyptian priests did not believe the king was a god. The only clear Greek writing about the Pharaoh’s divinity comes from Diodorus Siculus from the 1st century BCE, who used information from Hecataeus of Abdera. Diodorus also says that Darius I was the first to be honored as a king in Egypt.

Rabbinic literature

Even after the Egyptian kings, stories still talked about the Pharaoh acting like a god. These stories say the Pharaoh boldly claimed to be a god but was really just a normal person compared to the true God. The Pharaoh is mentioned in writings as someone who said he was a god, like ruling over the Nile river or even creating the world. These stories show the Pharaoh as someone who was wrong to act like a god.