Phoenicia

The Phoenicians were an ancient Semitic people who lived in city-states along the Levantine coast of the eastern Mediterranean, mainly in what is now Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria. They were great sailors and traders. Their cities, like Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre, became important places for trade.

The Phoenicians were skilled at building ships and sailing the seas. They set up colonies and trading posts from Cyprus to the Iberian Peninsula. One of their famous colonies was Carthage in the Mediterranean Maghreb, which later became a powerful city.

Even though the Phoenician cities were independent, they shared many cultural traditions. They created one of the earliest known alphabets. This writing system influenced many others, including the Greek alphabet, which later led to the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Their work in trade, ship-building, and other areas helped shape ancient Mediterranean civilizations.

Etymology

The Phoenicians were many independent cities, so they didn’t have one name for their whole land. People often used the name of their city, like "Sidonian" for someone from Sidon or "Tyrian" for someone from Tyre.

Ancient Egyptian writings mentioned a “land of carpenters,” which many believe refers to Phoenicia because the Phoenicians were famous for trading wood. This Egyptian word turned into the Greek word phoînix, which could mean a Phoenician person, a special red dye called Tyrian purple, or even a date palm. The Greeks used this word, and it later became the Latin word Poenī, which is where the name “Phoenicians” comes from.

History

We know about the Phoenicians from old writings and discoveries made by scientists. They were most powerful between 1200 BC and 332 BC.

It is not fully known if the Phoenicians were the same as the Canaanites, a larger group of people in the area. Some experts think they were the same, while others believe the Phoenicians developed their own special culture in cities along the coast.

The Phoenicians started in a time called the Early Bronze Age, with important places like Byblos and Sidon. The Middle Bronze Age was peaceful and good for trade. Later, big empires like Egypt and the Hittites influenced the Phoenician cities.

Origins

Main articles: Canaan, Retjenu, and Prehistory of the Levant

The Phoenicians grew from an older culture called the Ghassulian. This culture came from mixing different groups and led to farming and raising animals. The city of Ugarit was part of this time but had its own language.

Ancient writers like Herodotus and Strabo said the Phoenicians came from far away, but most experts today think they have always lived in the same area.

Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

We first hear about the Phoenicians from the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who fought them. The Phoenician cities were important because they were good at trade and had valuable wood. By the 14th century BC, cities like Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were very important to Egypt.

Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)

After a big problem called the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Phoenicians survived. By 1230 BC, cities like Tyre and Sidon were free and rich. They started exploring and setting up new places all around the Mediterranean Sea, from Cyprus to Spain.

Tyre became the most powerful city, especially under King Hiram I. Phoenician workers helped build important places in Israel. Under King Ithobaal, Tyre grew even more and claimed lands up to Cyprus.

Foundation of Carthage

Main articles: Carthage, Ancient Carthage, History of Carthage, and Punic Wars

The Phoenicians from Tyre started the city of Carthage, meaning “New City.” Some stories say it was founded around 1215 BC, but most historians think it was started in 814 BC. Carthage grew into a big empire but was later destroyed by Rome.

Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

The Phoenician cities were small and could not have big armies, so they were often ruled by bigger empires like the Assyrians and Babylonians. The Assyrians took control little by little, and later the Babylonians took over.

Persian period (539–332 BC)

Main article: Achaemenid Phoenicia

In 539 BC, the Persian king Cyrus the Great took control. The Phoenicians agreed to join the Persian Empire and paid taxes but were allowed to keep their own kings and ways of life. They were very helpful to the Persians, especially with their skills in sailing and building ships.

Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)

Phoenicia was one of the first places conquered by Alexander the Great. After a long siege, Tyre gave in. Alexander’s empire spread Greek culture, but in Phoenicia, the cities kept most of their own names and traditions. Later, the Phoenicians were ruled by the Seleucids and sometimes by the Ptolemies of Egypt.

Demographics

The Phoenicians were an ancient group of people who lived in a region called the Levant. This area includes parts of modern-day Lebanon and Syria. They were part of a larger group known as Semitic-speaking peoples. Though we call them Phoenicians today, they did not use that name themselves. Instead, they identified by their home cities or families.

Researchers have studied the DNA of modern and ancient people to learn more about the Phoenicians. These studies show that people living in Lebanon today share much of their DNA with ancient peoples called Canaanites. The Phoenicians were also part of a mix of different groups, including people from Europe and Asia, especially later on. Their influence spread across the Mediterranean, and their descendants can be found in places like Sicily and Spain.

Economy

Trade

See also: Phoenicians and wine

The Phoenicians helped connect many different cultures around the Mediterranean and Near East by trading goods and sharing ideas. Their trade networks brought together many lands and helped create a shared culture.

The Phoenicians traded with the Greeks, starting with the Minoan people on Crete and later the Mycenaean people. They sold cedar wood and wine to Egypt, getting gold in return. They also traded for silver from places like Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula, and tin from places such as Galicia, Cornwall, or Brittany.

Industry

Phoenicia did not have many natural resources except for cedar wood. They became skilled at making many useful items, including glass, metalwork, ivory carvings, and wooden products.

The Phoenicians made glass items like flasks and beads, and they created beautiful metalwork. They also made special goods for wealthy people, such as carved ivory and painted ostrich eggs.

Tyrian purple

One of the most famous Phoenician products was fabric dyed with a special purple color called Tyrian purple. This dye came from a type of sea snail and was very expensive. Only rich people could afford clothing made with this dye.

Mining

Mining in Phoenicia was limited, but they mined copper in Cyprus and other metals in places like Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula.

Agriculture

Phoenicia had some farming, but they often needed more food than they could grow. They grew wine, which they shared with other lands. They also set up vineyards in places like Morocco, Tunisia, Sicily, France, and Spain.

Shipbuilding

The Phoenicians built strong ships using special joinery techniques. They may have been the first to create ships with two rows of oars and later ships with three rows of oars. They also invented the amphora, a container used for storing goods, and built special harbors to protect their ships.

Important cities and colonies

Main article: List of Phoenician cities

The Phoenicians were not one country but a group of cities that shared the same language and culture. The most important cities were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. They sometimes argued but rarely fought each other.

There were many other cities along the coast, including Beiruta (now Beirut), Baalbek, and Tripolis. Around the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians set up trading places around the Mediterranean Sea. They created settlements in places like Cyprus, Sardinia, and Iberia. Later, they went even farther, reaching places beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, including parts of the Atlantic coast of Iberia. They may have even reached as far as the Canary Islands and the British Isles. Most of their settlements were small, with only a few hundred people, except for places like Carthage and Tangier, which grew much larger.

See also: Phoenician settlement of North Africa

To help with their trading, the Phoenicians set up many small colonies and trading spots along the Mediterranean coasts. They did not usually want to take over large areas, and most settlements had fewer than 1,000 people. One big reason they set up these colonies was because of competition with the Greeks, who were also expanding around the same time. Even though they were rivals, their settlements sometimes clashed, especially in places like Crete and Sicily.

The first Phoenician settlements outside their homeland were on Cyprus and Crete. Later, they moved west to places like Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as along the coast of the Maghreb and Iberia, including Tangier and Málaga. Tyre was the leader in setting up these colonies.

Phoenician colonies were mostly independent. They sometimes sent a small amount of goods each year to their home city as a kind of gift. But in the seventh century BC, the colonies in the west came under the control of Carthage, which ruled them through special leaders. Even after becoming independent, Carthage still sent gifts to Tyre for a while.

Society and culture

Because very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by other civilizations or discoveries from archaeology. The Phoenicians lived in city-states along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in areas that are now part of Lebanon and Syria. They were similar in their way of life, work, beliefs, and the things they made.

The Phoenician city-states were highly independent and often competed with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the most powerful city.

Phoenician society was highly organized and mostly ruled by kings. Kings usually governed with full power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the priesthood was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and had many duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became close to the royal family.

Phoenician kings did not make sculptures or monuments to remember their rule. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually shown through fancy sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have found a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.

Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were advised by councils or assemblies which gradually gained more power. In the sixth century BC, during the period of Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government with a pair of judges with authority similar to the Roman consul, known as sufetes (shophets), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.

After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are few. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the Phoenicians, the army's commander was mainly responsible for defending the city-state and its lands.

The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain officials. Like other societies at the time, laws were harsh and unfair, reflecting the social divisions of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less serious than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had more rights; the wealthy often avoided punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights.

As with most parts of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were mostly peaceful. The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states depended on foreign trade, which required good relations and trust. Each city had an army commander in charge of defending the city. However, the details of the role, or city defense, are unknown.

The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo.

Around 1050 BC, the Phoenicians developed a script for writing their own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus strictly an abjad). It is believed to be a continuation of the Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the Late Bronze Age. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

The alphabet was adopted and changed by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not happen all at once but over a long time of trade. According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary at Eretria is considered one of the places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet. The legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more likely that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete, whence it gradually spread northwards.

Phoenician art was mainly focused on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; small statues were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly strong in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most seen in bronze and ivory work.

Phoenician art also continued styles from the Bronze Age into the Iron Age, such as terracotta masks. Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles. In the Old Testament, a craftsman from Tyre is chosen to build and decorate the legendary Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The Iliad mentions the embroidered robes of Priam's wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of chased silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".

Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions. In most situations, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men. Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states. At least one woman, Amoashtart, or Ummiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the sixth century BC.

Religion

Main article: Canaanite religion

See also: Sanchuniathon

The Phoenicians had many of the same religious ideas as the people around them in Canaan. Their gods helped meet the needs of their cities. People sometimes gave money to the gods.

Their gods included El, the main god, and his son Baal, a powerful thunder god. Other gods had titles like "king of the city" or "lord." The Phoenicians built temples and gave gifts like small statues and pots to honor their gods. These gifts have been found in many places across the Mediterranean, showing how far their trade reached. Special groups called marzeh helped people get together for meals and festivals, building stronger communities.