Plautus

Plautus was a Roman playwright who lived a long time ago, from about 254 to 184 BC. He wrote funny plays called comedies in Latin. All the plays by Plautus that we still have today are from this time. They help us learn about theater in ancient Rome.

Plautus wrote a special kind of play called Palliata comoedia. This means “plays based on Greek stories.” Another writer, Livius Andronicus, started this style. Famous writers from much later, like Shakespeare and Molière, were inspired by Plautus. One of Molière’s plays, The Miser, uses ideas from Plautus's play called Aulularia.

Because Plautus's plays have lasted so long, we can still enjoy them today. They show us about life in ancient Rome and how humor has always been a big part of stories.

Biography

Not much is known about Plautus's early life. He was likely born in Sarsina, a small town in what is now Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy, around 254 BC. Plautus may have worked as a stage-carpenter before he found his talent for acting. He later studied Greek plays, especially the works of Menander. These plays inspired him to write his own comedies. His plays, performed between about 205 and 184 BC, were very popular. They are the earliest surviving complete works in Latin literature.

Plautus's comedies were often based on Greek stories but changed to suit Roman audiences. His plays brought joy and entertainment to many people in Rome.

Surviving plays

• Amphitruo
  The play is set in Thebes in Greece. While the general, Amphitruo, is away fighting, the god Jupiter visits his house and spends time with his wife Alcumena. Jupiter's son Mercury, disguised as Amphitruo's servant Sosia, keeps watch. When the real Sosia returns with news of a victory, Mercury teases him and causes trouble. When Amphitruo returns, Alcumena is surprised to see him back so soon. There is a quarrel and Amphitruo accuses her of wrongdoing. He leaves to fetch a witness. Then Jupiter returns for another visit with Alcumena, and when Amphitruo returns, Mercury, still disguised as Sosia, throws tiles at him from the roof. Amphitruo is angry and about to cause trouble, when suddenly there is a thunderclap; a nurse comes out and reports that Alcumena has given birth to two boys, one of them Hercules. Finally Jupiter appears and explains everything to Amphitruo.

• Asinaria
  Demaenetus, an Athenian gentleman, tells his servant Libanus that he knows his son Argyrippus is in love with a woman, but has no money to give to her. He asks Libanus to find the money by tricking his wealthy wife Artemona or her steward Saurea. Libanus is at a loss for a plan until his fellow servant, Leonida, meets a stranger who has come to pay a debt to Saurea for some donkeys which had earlier been sold to a certain merchant. Leonida pretends to be Saurea, and he and Libanus trick the stranger into handing the money over to Leonida. The money is given to Argyrippus but with the stipulation that his father is to be allowed to spend the first night with the woman. But a rival lover, Diabolus, who wants the woman for himself, asks his friend to inform Artemona what is happening. She storms to the house and drags her husband away, leaving Argyrippus to enjoy the woman by himself.

• Aulularia
  A miserly old man, Euclio, has found a pot of gold in his house, and keeps checking that no one has stolen it. His wealthy neighbour Megadorus comes to ask for the hand of Euclio's daughter Phaedrium, unaware that she was earlier treated unfairly and is heavily pregnant. Soon Megadorus's servant Strobilus arrives with two cooks to prepare a wedding feast; he instructs one of the cooks, Congrio, to go to Euclio's house and start work. When Euclio returns he is alarmed, thinking his gold is being stolen, and he chases Congrio out into the street. Euclio decides to hide the pot but he is watched each time by a servant of Megadorus's nephew Lyconides. Euclio is horrified to find that his gold has been stolen despite his precautions. At this point Lyconides tells Euclio that he treated Phaedrium unfairly and wishes to marry her. Later Lyconides discovers that it was his servant who stole the gold, and he insists that it must be returned.

• Bacchides
  The young man Mnesilochus is in love with a woman called Bacchis. While he is away, his friend Pistoclerus falls in love with Bacchis's sister, also called Bacchis. Mnesilochus returns from his stay in Ephesus, where he had been sent by his father to collect some money. Mnesilochus's clever servant Chrysalus tricks his father into thinking that part of the money is still in Ephesus; in this way Mnesilochus will be able to keep some of the money to give to Bacchis. But when Mnesilochus hears that Pistoclerus has a girlfriend called Bacchis, in his anger he gives all the money to his father, keeping none back. He learns from Pistoclerus that there are two Bacchises. He begs Chrysalus to trick his father again to get the money he needs. Chrysalus tells his father that Mnesilochus has been spending time with the wife of a soldier who is threatening to harm Mnesilochus. To protect his son, his father promises to pay 200 gold pieces. Later, in another trick, Chrysalus persuades his father to pay another 200 gold pieces to prevent his son from telling a lie. But when his father meets the soldier he learns that Bacchis is only a woman who owed the soldier money. His father and Pistoclerus's father go to the Bacchises' house to speak with their sons; the two sisters come out and charm them and persuade them to join the party.

• Captivi
  The play is set in Aetolia in western Greece. An old man, Hegio, has been buying prisoners-of-war from Elis in the hope of exchanging one of them for his own son, who has been captured in Elis. Among Hegio's prisoners are a young man, Philocrates, and his loyal servant Tyndarus, who have switched places so that Philocrates can go back to his family in Elis. The plan works, and Philocrates goes home. Meanwhile another captive, Aristophontes, recognises Tyndarus and tells Hegio what has happened. Tyndarus is sent to hard labour. Later a friend Ergasilus brings news that Hegio's son has arrived at the harbour. Philocrates arrives, together with Hegio's son, Philopolemus, bringing a runaway servant called Stalagmus. When Stalagmus is questioned he reveals that Tyndarus is Hegio's long-lost son whom Stalagmus had kidnapped and sold years before. Tyndarus is rescued from his punishment and reunited with his father.

• Casina
  A father and son, Lysidamus and Euthynicus, are both in love with the beautiful Casina, a young girl who was adopted into their family as a baby. The father sends his son away on a trip and plans for Casina to marry his farm-manager Olympio, so that he can be with her whenever he likes without his wife Cleostrata knowing. When Cleostrata discovers his intention, she plans for Casina to marry Euthynicus's servant Chalinus, to keep her safe until Euthynicus returns. When her plan fails, she dresses up Chalinus as Casina and sends him into the bedroom of the neighbour's house where Lysidamus is planning to spend the night with Casina. The husband is exposed, and Casina is kept safe for Euthynicus's return.

• Cistellaria
  A young woman, Selenium, is in love with her first and only lover, a wealthy young man called Alcesimarchus, who has promised to marry her. But she is upset to hear that Alcesimarchus is now engaged to marry another girl. Selenium believes she is the daughter of another woman, but in fact her birth mother is Phanostrata, the mother of Alcesimarchus's fiancée. By chance a servant overhears Phanostrata's servant, who had been ordered to leave Selenium as a baby, telling his mistress that he had found the woman who had picked her up, and that he learnt that she had given the baby to be adopted by another woman. The servant immediately goes to fetch the recognition tokens which he has been keeping in a small casket. The casket is accidentally dropped in the street by a maid; it is found and shown to Phanostrata, who recognises the tokens. Alcesimarchus is now free to marry his beloved Selenium and all ends well.

• Curculio
  Phaedromus is a young man in Epidaurus in Greece, who is in love with a woman Planesium owned by a man Cappadox. Lacking the money to pay for her, Phaedromus had sent Curculio, a friend, to Caria to borrow money from a certain friend. When he returns, Curculio tells Phaedromus that the friend had no money, but that he had met a soldier called Therapontigonus, who had told him that he intended to buy Planesium for himself. Curculio had stolen the soldier's signet ring and hurried back to Epidaurus. Wearing a disguise and carrying his forged letter, he tricks a banker into paying the money to Cappadox, and so is able to buy Planesium for Phaedromus. Planesium, however, recognises the ring as one that had once belonged to her father, and when the soldier arrives in Epidaurus he in turn recognises a ring which he had once given to her. Phaedromus is able to marry Planesium, and, because Planesium proves to be free-born, Cappadox is obliged to return the money that was paid for her.

• Epidicus
  The servant Epidicus's young master Stratippocles returns from the war in Thebes, bringing a captive girl he has fallen in love with. He orders Epidicus to find 40 minae to pay for her. This alarms Epidicus, since earlier Stratippocles had made him find the money to buy a different girl, and Epidicus had done this by fooling Stratippocles' father Periphanes into believing that the girl was his daughter. Epidicus has an idea. He convinces Periphanes that Stratippocles is still in love with his music girl and has borrowed money to buy her. To prevent this, Epidicus suggests that Periphanes should buy the girl himself, and sell her to a certain army officer for a profit. Periphanes pays, but Epidicus brings him a different music-girl hired for the day and hands the money to Stratippocles. When the officer arrives he tells Periphanes it is not the same girl he wanted to buy. Now Philippa, a woman that Periphanes had treated unfairly years before, arrives, looking for her daughter who has been captured in the war. She and Periphanes recognise each other, but when he brings out the girl who Epidicus told him was their daughter, Philippa says it is not her. Epidicus is now in big trouble since he has tricked Periphanes twice. But by a lucky chance, when the captive arrives, Epidicus recognises her: she is Philippa's daughter. Periphanes is so delighted to have found his missing daughter that he forgives Epidicus and gives him his freedom.

• Menaechmi
  The play is set in Epidamnus in western Greece. The play opens when Peniculus, a friend, arrives at the house of Menaechmus hoping to be given dinner. Menaechmus comes out, quarrelling with his wife. He tells Peniculus that he is going to give a cloak to his girlfriend the woman Erotium, who lives next door. They persuade Erotium to invite them to dinner, and while waiting they go to the forum for drink. Meanwhile Menaechmus's twin brother, also called Menaechmus, arrives from Syracuse with his servant Messenio, looking for his long-lost twin. Erotium greets him warmly, invites him in for dinner and afterwards gives him the cloak requesting it to be altered. A series of misunderstandings follows, during which the first Menaechmus gets tied up by his father-in-law and a doctor who think he has gone mad; he is rescued by Messenio. The two brothers finally meet. The first Menaechmus decides to auction off all his goods and return to Syracuse with his brother. Messenio claims his freedom for rescuing Menaechmus.

• Mercator
  Charinus, son of the Athenian merchant Demipho, met a beautiful girl called Pasicompsa in Rhodes and has brought her back to Athens. He intends to pretend that he has bought her as a servant for his mother. But his father catches sight of Pasicompsa at the port, and wants her for himself. He tells his son that Pasicompsa is too beautiful to be a servant, and insists she must be sold. He arranges for his friend Lysimachus to buy her and take her to his house. But Lysimachus's wife returns unexpectedly from the country and when a cook turns up to prepare a feast there is a row. Lysimachus's son Eutychus, who is a friend of Charinus, learns from a servant that Pasicompsa is inside the house. He fetches Charinus, who was about to go abroad in despair, and brings him to rescue Pasicompsa. Afterwards Eutychus meets Lysimachus and Demipho and speaks to Demipho for his bad behaviour.

• Miles Gloriosus
  The play is set in Ephesus. A boastful soldier, Pyrgopolynices, has taken a woman from Athens. A clever servant, Palaestrio, has separately been captured and is now working in the same house. Palaestrio's former master, the young Athenian Pleusicles, is in love with the woman and has come to Ephesus to rescue her; he is lodging next door with a jovial old bachelor called Periplectomenus. Palaestrio has made a hole in the wall between the houses so that the woman can visit Pleusicles. Unfortunately the lovers are spotted by Sceledrus, one of the soldier's servants. Palaestrio comes up with a plan to pretend that the girl next door is the woman's sister, and he and Periplectomenus have fun tricking not very bright Sceledrus while the woman pops out first from one door then the other. Palaestrio now thinks up another plan. He gets a local woman and her servant to pretend that the woman is the wealthy owner of the house next door, and that she is madly in love with the soldier. The plan works, and Pyrgopolynices orders the woman to depart to make room for his new bride. But when he goes next door to claim his bride he is thoroughly beaten up by Periplectomenus's servants.

• Mostellaria
  A young man, Philolaches, is in love with a woman, and in his father's absence has borrowed money to give to her. Suddenly, while he and his friend Callidamates are partying, his servant Tranio brings news of the father's return. Tranio ushers everyone inside the house and when the father, Theopropides, arrives, deceives him into thinking that the house is haunted by a spirit and cannot be entered. Next Tranio tricks the neighbour, Simo, into letting Theopropides inspect his house, which Theopropides has been told is for sale. While Tranio is off-stage, Theopropides meets two of Callidamates's servants and realises that he has been tricked by Tranio. He is determined to punish him. But Callidamates appears and begs Theopropides to forgive both Philolaches and Tranio.

• Persa
  The cunning servant Toxilus, who is looking after his master's house while he is away, is in love with a woman owned by the man Dordalus, who lives next door. He persuades his friend Sagaristio, another cunning servant, to lend him the money needed to buy her, promising to get the money back from Dordalus by a trick. Meanwhile he persuades another friend, the friend Saturio, to lend his daughter for the trick. Sagaristio dresses up as a man from Persia, and sells the daughter to Dordalus for a large sum pretending she is a captive from Arabia. Immediately afterwards Saturio comes to reclaim his daughter from Dordalus on the grounds that she is an Athenian citizen and drags him off to court. Since no guarantee was given at the time of the sale, the money does not have to be returned, and Toxilus and Sagaristio celebrate their victory.

• Poenulus
  The play is set in Calydon in central Greece. A young man, Agorastocles, is in love with a servant owned by a man Lycus. He and his servant Milphio spot the servant and her sister in the street and each try to win her over, but she rejects their overtures. Milphio suggests a plan to send Agorastocles' estate-manager Collybiscus to Lycus's house pretending to be a rich customer. Agorastocles brings some witnesses to observe Collybiscus taking a lot of money into the house. They trick Lycus into denying that any servant with money has come to the house, and Agorastocles threatens to take him to court. Lycus flees. Now a traveller comes to the town, speaking in Punic, looking for his two lost daughters, who had been captured in childhood by pirates. Hanno recognises Agorastocles from a monkey-bite scar as the son of his late cousin. He also discovers that the servant and her sister are his daughters. There is a joyful reunion and Agorastocles declares that he will go back to Carthage with Hanno and the girls.

• Pseudolus
  The young man Calidorus is distressed because his beloved, the servant Phoenicium, has been sold to a Macedonian army officer. He is unable to find the 20 minae needed to buy her. The cunning servant Pseudolus promises to help. In the next scene, Phoenicium's owner, the man Ballio, brings all his servants and women out into the street and speaks to them angrily, ordering them to prepare a feast for his birthday. Later, Pseudolus meets Calidorus's father Simo and bets him 20 minae that Phoenicium will be free by the end of the day. At this point Harpax, a servant of the officer, arrives bringing the balance of the money to be paid for Phoenicium. Pseudolus pretends to be Ballio's steward, and Harpax hands him a letter from the officer to Ballio. Now Pseudolus dresses up another cunning servant, Simio, as Harpax and sends him to meet Ballio. The plan works and Phoenicium is released. When the real Harpax returns, Simo and Ballio think that this just is one of Pseudolus's tricks and speak to the boy unfairly. Too late, they realise that he is genuine. Ballio has to pay Simo the 20 minae he has bet that Pseudolus will not get the better of them, and Simo has to pay Pseudolus 20 minae, although Pseudolus, who by this time is very drunk, generously offers to return Simo half the money if he will attend a party with him.

• Rudens
  Two girls, Palaestra and Ampelisca, escape from the sea after a shipwreck off the coast of north Africa and seek refuge in a nearby temple of Venus. The young servant Trachalio, who is in love with Ampelisca, discovers them there. Now the man Labrax, accompanied by his business-partner Charmides, who have also been shipwrecked, arrive. When he learns that the girls are in the temple, Labrax goes in to seize them. The girls are rescued by Trachalio, with the assistance of Daemones, who lives next door to the temple. Trachalio fetches his young master, Plesidippus, who is in love with Palaestra and has already paid Labrax a deposit to buy her. Plesidippus takes Labrax to court to sue him for fraud. In the second half of the play, Daemones' servant Gripus appears, dragging a basket which he has rescued from the sea. Trachalio finds him and, suspecting that the case contains Labrax's money and the tokens which will enable Palaestra to prove her identity, prevents him from stealing it by holding on to the rope by which Gripus is dragging the basket. Daemones is delighted to discover from the tokens that Palaestra is his own long-lost daughter. He forces Labrax to give Gripus the reward he had promised. Daemones uses the money to buy freedom for Gripus and Ampelisca, and invites everyone to dinner.

• Stichus
  Two sisters, Philumena and Pamphila, are complaining that their husbands have been away for three years and their father is pressuring them to remarry. The father Antipho arrives and first asks their advice about his getting a new wife, then broaches the subject of their remarrying; but the sisters firmly refuse. When he has gone, Philumena sends for the friend Gelasimus; she wants to send him to see if there is news of her husband's ship. Gelasimus arrives, but shortly afterwards a servant boy Pinacium also comes bringing news that the ship has arrived. Gelasimus tries to angle for a dinner invitation but is rebuffed. Philumena's husband Epignomus soon arrives with his servant Stichus: Stichus asks for a day's holiday, which is granted together with some wine to celebrate it. For the third time Gelasimus tries his luck for a dinner invitation, but is rebuffed. Now Pamphila's husband Pamphilippus arrives talking to Antipho, who hints that he would like to be given a music girl; the request is granted. Again Gelasimus angles for an invitation and is rebuffed. In the final part of the play Stichus and his friend Sangarinus celebrate Stichus's safe return with some food and drink and dancing, at which they are joined by their shared girlfriend Stephanium.

• Trinummus
  An Athenian gentleman, Megaronides, reproaches his friend Callicles for having purchased the house of his neighbour Charmides, who is away in Syria, for a cheap price. Callicles explains that he did this honourably since he wanted to protect the house and the treasure buried in it from the spendthrift habits of Charmides' son Lesbonicus. Meanwhile Lesbonicus's friend Lysiteles tells his father Philto that in order to help Lesbonicus he wishes to marry Charmides's daughter without a dowry. Philto goes to Lesbonicus to propose the match, but the plan is thwarted when Lesbonicus refuses to give away his sister without a dowry, as it would dishonour her. Callicles, when he learns this, consults his friend Megaronides, who advises him to use Charmides' buried treasure as a dowry. When Callicles says he does not want to tell Lesbonicus about the treasure in case he misuses it, Megaronides suggests they hire an imposter for three coins (Latin trinummus), dress him up and make him pretend that he has brought the money from Charmides in Syria. Charmides now arrives back and has an amusing conversation with the imposter. At first Charmides reproaches Callicles for buying the house but when Callicles explains everything, Charmides is delighted. Lysiteles is allowed to marry Charmides' daughter, and Lesbonicus is betrothed to Callicles' daughter.

• Truculentus
  A woman, Phronesium, has three lovers: Diniarchus, a young man from the city; Strabax, a young farmer; and Stratophanes, an army officer from the east. Diniarchus, returning from abroad, visits Phronesium but is not allowed to enter. It appears that Phronesium has found a baby and she is going to pretend that the baby is Stratophanes' child. Next the soldier Stratophanes arrives but the gifts he brings are not enough and he is refused admission. Diniarchus's cook Cyamus now arrives bringing gifts sent by his master, and the jealous Stratophanes quarrels with him. The farmer Strabax now arrives with money and is admitted. His servant Truculentus, who is following him to prevent him wasting his father's money, himself falls prey to the allurements of Phronesium's servant Astaphium. Now Diniarchus comes back, but since Phronesium is busy with Strabax, he is again refused admission, despite all the presents he had sent. At this moment an old gentleman called Callicles arrives, looking for the baby which his daughter had given birth to after being treated unfairly. Two servants, threatened with punishment, inform him that the baby was given to Phronesium and that the father is Diniarchus. Diniarchus begs Callicles for forgiveness, and he offers to make amends by marrying the daughter. However, when he asks Phronesium for the baby, she asks to keep it for a while longer to continue her deception of Stratophanes. When Stratophanes comes he finds Strabax emerging from the house, and quarrels jealously with him, but, despite the fact that Stratophanes pays Phronesium a further huge sum of money, Strabax wins the day.

Fragmentary plays

Only the names and small parts of Plautus's other plays are left today. We do not have the full stories, but knowing their names helps us understand old Roman theater and the types of stories people enjoyed watching long ago.

Manuscript tradition

The oldest known manuscript of Plautus is called a palimpsest, which means the paper was used again. It is kept in the Ambrosian Library in Milan and dates back to around the 5th century, but it was found much later in 1815. Some parts of the text are missing or hard to read, but it has helped experts fix mistakes in other copies.

Another group of manuscripts is called the Palatine family, named after a library in Germany. The most important one is from the 10th or 11th century and is now in the Vatican library. These manuscripts have many of Plautus's plays, though some parts are missing or not sure. Experts have studied how these manuscripts are related and what they can tell us about Plautus's works.

Historical context

Plautus wrote his funny plays when Rome was just starting to build its theaters and the Roman Republic was getting bigger. His work helps us understand what life was like back then.

Sometimes, Plautus’ characters acted like gods or even claimed to be better than gods. This might have upset some people, but it showed what people were thinking at the time.

His plays also mentioned big events, like the Second Punic War, when a leader named Hannibal attacked Italy. Plautus used his stories to share feelings about these wars, showing both excitement and worry. Through his characters, Plautus supported ordinary people and suggested that the government should help its citizens after hard times.

Influences

Greek New Comedy focused more on family life than on politics. This made it easier for Roman writers like Plautus to adapt these stories. One big theme was the relationship between fathers and sons. While Greek playwrights like Menander showed strong bonds between them, Plautus sometimes added twists where the father and son disagreed or tricked each other.

Plautus added lots of humor through wordplay, puns, and funny situations. His characters, such as clever slaves and tricky servants, were based on Greek ideas but made even more amusing in his versions. Many of Plautus’ character names came from Greek, which sounded funny and familiar to Roman audiences who had met Greek culture during wars. Overall, Plautus took Greek stories and made them his own by adding Roman flair and extra humor.

Main article: Menander

Main articles: patriarchal society, word play, physical comedy, alliteration

Stagecraft

In ancient Rome, there were no permanent theaters when Plautus wrote his plays. Romans believed that theaters could have a bad influence, so they only built temporary stages for festivals. These stages were small and made of wood, often set up near temples. They were taken down quickly because they could catch fire.

Plautus’ plays were performed during special events called ludi. These were like festivals where people could watch performances. Because the stages were small, not everyone could get a good seat. Only important people got to sit, while others had to stand. The stages were very simple, with just a few doors for actors to enter and exit.

Plautus made his plays fun by using the same types of characters over and over. One common type was the “braggart soldier,” a character who tells big, silly stories about his adventures. Another was the “clever slave,” who helps the main character by coming up with funny plans. These characters made the plays full of humor that everyone enjoyed.

Language and style

Plautus wrote in a relaxed, everyday style of Latin. This was different from the formal Latin used by writers like Ovid or Virgil. His language had many unusual or older words, which helps us learn about early Roman speech.

Plautus often used proverbs and a little Greek in his plays to add humor. He liked wordplay, puns, and rhymes to entertain people. The rhythm of his plays made them fun to watch and listen to. In many of his stories, clever slave characters spoke to the audience, explaining things and adding jokes. Meat, especially pork, was a common topic in his plays, often part of meals and jokes.

Influence

Plautus's work has had a big impact on literature. Famous writers like Shakespeare and Molière used ideas from his comedies in their own plays.

Shakespeare was inspired by Plautus, especially in his early comedies. For example, Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors has twin characters and confusing situations, much like Plautus’s Menaechmi. Shakespeare added his own creative touches, but the basic ideas come from Plautus.

Molière, a famous French playwright, also used Plautus’s ideas. In plays like The Miser and The Blunderer, Molière used clever servants and tricky plans, just like Plautus did. The way these characters act and the situations they face are inspired by Plautus.

Plautus’s influence is still seen today in modern musicals and TV shows, which use his funny characters and situations.