Political history of the Philippines

The political history of the Philippines is a story of many changes over hundreds of years. Long ago, the islands were made up of small groups called barangays. Bigger states appeared when new ideas and religions arrived through trade.

When Spanish settlers came, they created a place called the Captaincy General of the Philippines, ruled from Manila. Even though it was part of New Spain, the Philippines often governed itself, with local leaders helping to lead.

In the 1800s, big changes happened as Filipinos began to think more about their own identity. Educated people, called Ilustrado, tried to ask Spain for better treatment. This led to a movement for independence and even a revolution. Leaders declared independence in 1898, but Spain gave the islands to the United States. The U.S. set up its own rule and later allowed the Philippines to become almost independent.

After World War II, the Philippines finally became fully independent in 1946, with two big groups, the Liberal Party and the Nacionalista Party, sharing power. But in 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos took control by declaring martial law. After many problems, people rose up in what is called the People Power Revolution in 1986, ending Marcos's rule and bringing in new leaders. Since then, the country has had many changes in government and continues to work toward a stable and fair political system.

Pre-Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521)

Before the Spanish came, the Philippines had many small groups called barangays. These barangays were tiny states linked by trade. The word "barangay" might come from "balangay," a boat the Austronesian people used to travel there. These groups had leaders called datus, along with freemen and others with fewer rights.

Later, Hindu ideas helped some leaders become more powerful. The first big state was Sulu, which began following Islam in the 1400s. This spread to places like the Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan died in a fight between two leaders, Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon, over who would control Cebu. Later, in 1565, a Spanish leader named Miguel López de Legazpi started a settlement in Cebu. In 1571, the area of Maynila was taken over, and Manila became the main city for Spanish rule. Spain slowly took control of most of what is now the Philippines, but some places in the south and the Cordillera highlands stayed independent.

Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898)

Colonization and governance

When the Spanish arrived, they changed small groups into larger towns. This helped them control the people and shift them to farming. Local priests had a lot of power because they carried out Spanish orders and collected taxes. The real power, though, was with the King and a group called the Council of the Indies. Because the Philippines was far away, it often ran itself. A local Governor and a court started in 1583 to help manage things.

Spanish rule didn’t reach far past Manila. With only a few Spanish officials, locals were needed to help run things. Local leaders helped manage groups and choose people for government jobs. The Church stayed a big Spanish presence. There were several uprisings against Spanish rule, but they were all put down. Some uprisings led to more local people getting jobs in the government. This created a new class of local leaders.

Trade routes set up by Spain sent all trade to Spanish colonies in the New World. Even with more economic activity, the islands stayed divided by language and culture. Areas like Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan stayed mostly out of Spanish control. There was ongoing conflict between these areas and the Spanish. In the mountain areas, Spanish control was only in the lowlands.

From the late 1700s, the government tried to take power away from Church groups and give it to local priests. In the 1800s, Philippine ports opened to world trade, and changes started in Filipino society. In 1808, a new king in Spain led to the Philippines having a voice in the Spanish government, but this was taken away later. From 1836, the Philippines was run directly by a Ministry in Spain.

Political problems in Spain led to many governors being sent to the Philippines between 1800 and 1860, often without experience. Big political changes started in the 1860s. Changes in Spain and the Philippines led to more bureaucracy and civil service jobs, mostly for educated people in cities. Education reforms in the 1860s let more people go to school. The Spanish also tried to control mountain tribes, with more success in the south where they gained control of the seas and coasts and got the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.

National awakening and revolution

Wars in Latin America and new people moving in changed social identities. The word Filipino started to mean everyone in the islands. This idea was pushed by wealthy families of mixed backgrounds, who wanted to be equal to Spanish groups. Spanish was a common language for the growing elite, most from Manila. A group of educated people called the Ilustrados became important in government and politics.

Liberal ideas from Spain were blocked by powerful Church groups. In the 1880s, some Ilustrados started a movement to change Spanish rule in the Philippines. They wanted equal treatment and more local control. Most of their work happened in Madrid. When liberal reforms were rejected, some saw this as the start of a national movement, and members returned to the Philippines. In 1893, Spain passed a law giving a little local control.

A harsh reaction to this movement led to its suppression. In the 1890s, splits happened among those who supported these ideas. One group, the Katipunan, formed in 1892. They wanted full independence and started the Philippine Revolution in 1896. This got support from local leaders outside big cities.

Even though many Ilustrados didn’t support the revolution, many were arrested by Spanish authorities. After the execution of José Rizal in 1896, the rebellion grew stronger. Control passed to Emilio Aguinaldo. Spanish forces couldn’t stop the growing support for the revolution outside Manila. When the Spanish–American War reached the Philippines in 1898, Aguinaldo returned, set up a new government, and proclaimed Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. After a battle, Aguinaldo set up a revolutionary government and a congress in Barasoain Church. This congress approved the declaration of independence and, in 1899, the Malolos Constitution, starting the First Philippine Republic. On December 10, 1898, Spain gave control of the Philippines to the United States by the Treaty of Paris.

American era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

The Philippine–American War began in February 1899 with a fight in Manila. The United States set up military and civil governments in the capital and other areas. In rural areas, working with local leaders helped reduce resistance to American rule.

American leaders believed in the importance of law and tried to apply their legal traditions to the Philippines. They worked with local elites, who helped gain acceptance of American rule. They introduced elections and included Filipinos in government roles.

The United States expanded local participation in government more than the Spanish had. Political participation was still limited to those with certain status, wealth, and literacy. The first election for the Philippine Assembly was held on July 30, 1907, and was dominated by the Nacionalista Party, which wanted independence. The Americans introduced more Filipinos into government jobs, and by 1921, most civil service workers were Filipino.

The Jones Law of 1916 created the Philippine Senate and aimed for eventual independence. Voting rules were changed to include more people, and the Nacionalista Party remained strong in elections until independence.

Commonwealth era

The new rules for how the government would work were approved on January 31, 1935. The first votes were held on September 17. Two leaders, Quezon and Osmeña, were chosen as president and vice president. The group in charge of making laws was controlled by one party. The plan was that the United States would let the Philippines become independent soon. In 1937, more people were allowed to vote, including women who could read. Leaders worked to create one way to think about what it meant to be Filipino.

The way the government worked was based on the system used in the United States. After World War II, the Philippines joined groups like the United Nations.

When Japan invaded in 1941 during World War II, the leaders had to leave, and a new government was set up under Japanese control. After the war, the old leaders came back. In 1946, the United States allowed the Philippines to become fully independent, and a new government began.

Two-party system

Main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965)

After the war, the government became weaker. Leaders from outside the capital city gained more power. Some of these leaders joined national politics. By the late 1960s, politicians no longer needed to rely on land ownership to gain support. Power stayed in the hands of a small group of wealthy people, and the country had two main political parties. The president usually also controlled both houses of Congress. There was little difference between the two parties, and switching sides was common.

One president died suddenly, and his vice president took over. Later, another president died in a plane crash, and his vice president also took over. During this time, there were concerns about fair elections. Some leaders became very popular, while others faced protests. The economy grew, leading to more influence from businesses and the media.

Marcos dictatorship

Main article: History of the Philippines (1965–1986)

In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law in the Philippines. He said this was needed to fight against some groups.

This allowed him to arrest political opponents and control the government without elections.

Marcos changed many parts of how the country was run. He created a new constitution and took control of many government areas. Over time, his rule faced problems. In 1986, after a disputed election, many people opposed Marcos. This led to large protests that forced him to leave power, and Corazon Aquino became the new president.

Post–People Power era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1986–present)

After the People Power Revolution, President Aquino led the country with special powers from the public. She created a new constitution to replace the old one. This new constitution showed that Aquino’s government was chosen by the Filipino people and helped by some parts of the military. Because of this, the military later became more involved in politics.

In 1987, a new constitution was approved by voting. This brought back democratic rules similar to an older constitution. It added term limits for leaders, created checks to prevent too much power in one place, and brought back the Senate. The military could no longer hold government jobs. The constitution also allowed ways for people to vote directly on important issues and gave more rights to groups in society.

The new constitution did not cancel older laws. Some lands taken from rich families were given back. The constitution kept rules about civilian control of the military but added that the military should protect the people and the country. It also separated the police from the military and made the police responsible for internal safety. There were attempts to overthrow the government a few times between 1986 and 1987.

Elections in 1987 for the Senate saw groups that supported Aquino win most seats. Local leaders were first chosen by Aquino, but later elections let traditional leaders return to power. Movements for political change lost strength. Aquino’s time as president had challenges like attempts to overthrow her, high prices, job problems, and natural disasters. But she started some land reforms and opened the economy to more outside business. Rebel groups kept fighting, and Aquino tried to make peace but later used a strong plan against them. The U.S. bases in Subic Bay and Clark left the country. In 1991, a new law gave more power to local governments.

Aquino did not want to be president again, and she supported Fidel V. Ramos for the 1992 election. Ramos won, though there were questions about the voting. He faced energy problems and solved them by making deals with companies that provided power. Ramos made changes to make the economy more open, hosted an important meeting of leaders from across the Pacific, brought back the death penalty, changed voting rules for the poor, and made a peace deal with a Muslim group. But his plans for big changes to the constitution failed.

Ramos’ vice president, Joseph Estrada, became president in 1998 after winning an election that many poorer voters supported. He tried to change the constitution but faced strong opposition. His government fought against rebels but also faced big accusations of corruption. This led to protests and finally, the military and others stopped supporting him. Estrada left office, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo became president.

Arroyo faced many problems, including attempts to overthrow her government and accusations that she cheated in elections. She tried to change the constitution but failed. By the end of her time as president, many people thought her government was very corrupt, but there were no big protests to remove her.

Before the 2010 election, Arroyo’s party chose someone else to run, but the son of the former president Aquino, Benigno Aquino III, joined the race and won. His time as president was mostly calm and seen as less corrupt. But problems like natural disasters and accusations of misuse of money caused some people to lose trust.

In 2016, Rodrigo Duterte won the election and started a strong plan against illegal drugs. He also worked on building roads and other projects, made peace with Muslim rebels, and changed some rules to give more power to Muslim areas. His government continued many economic plans from Aquino but made some changes that gave less power to checks and balances.

In 2022, Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, son of a former president, won the election and became president again, marking the return of his family to power after many years. Duterte’s daughter, Sara Duterte, became vice president.