Political spectrum

A political spectrum is a way to organize and show different political ideas and positions. These ideas are placed on one or more lines, called axes, which help us see how they are related to each other. We often hear the terms political compass or political map when talking about the political spectrum.

The most common way to look at politics uses a left–right line. This idea started a long time ago in the French parliament after the Revolution. People with new ideas for big change, like communism and socialism, are usually on the left. Those who want to keep many old traditions, like conservatism and reactionism, are usually on the right. Some ideas, like liberalism, can be on either side depending on the situation. People in the middle are called centrists or moderates.

Many political scientists think that just one left–right line is too simple to describe all the different political beliefs. They often use two lines together: one for economic ideas and another for social ideas. This helps show more of the rich variety in political thinking.

Historical origin of the terms

The words "right" and "left" come from the French Revolution in 1789–1799. They started from how people sat in meeting places in France. The rich and powerful sat on the right, and ordinary people sat on the left. This is why we call some groups "right-wing" and others "left-wing."

At first, the big difference was about the old way of running the country, called the Ancien Régime. The "Right" stood for supporting kings, rich families, and the church. The "Left" stood for ideas like equality for all, not mixing religion with government, and freedom for everyone.

Academic investigation

Experts have studied how to describe different political views for almost a century.

In 1950, Leonard W. Ferguson looked at political values using ten different scales. These scales measured opinions on topics like birth control, capital punishment, censorship, communism, evolution, law, patriotism, belief in God, how criminals are treated, and war. He found three main groups of views.

Later, Hans Eysenck studied political attitudes in the United Kingdom. He thought that fascists and communists had some similarities, even though they seemed very different. Eysenck collected political statements and asked people to agree or disagree. He found two main factors: one related to traditional left-right politics, and another that showed views from peaceful and equal to more military and strict.

After that, Milton Rokeach created his own model about freedom and equality. He said the main difference between left and right was how much they valued equality. Rokeach’s research, like Eysenck’s, showed both similarities and differences between political groups.

Recent studies suggest there may be many more ways to look at political opinions, especially in places like the United States and the United Kingdom.

Other double-axis models

Greenberg and Jonas: left–right, ideological rigidity

In 2003, Jeff Greenberg and Eva Jonas made a model with two lines. One line is the usual left-to-right line. The other line shows how strict or unchanging a person's beliefs are. People with very strict beliefs often like strong leaders and support strong control by police and military.

Inglehart: traditionalist–secular and self expressionist–survivalist

The Economist talked about a chart made by Ronald Inglehart. This chart uses two lines to show cultural ideas. One line deals with tradition and religion, like patriotism and obeying authority. The other line deals with self-expression, like accepting diversity and new ideas. This chart can show the values of people in different countries.

Pournelle: liberty–control, irrationalism–rationalism

Jerry Pournelle created a two-axis model in 1963. One line shows liberty, with people on the left wanting freedom from control and those on the right supporting state authority. The other line shows rationalism, with people higher up believing problems can be solved through planning, and those lower down being more skeptical of such plans.

Mitchell: Eight Ways to Run the Country

In 2006, Brian Patrick Mitchell described four main political traditions based on their views of force and rank. He placed these traditions on a chart with one line showing the use of force and the other showing recognition of rank. This helps show how different political ideas are related.

Nolan: economic freedom, personal freedom

The Nolan Chart, made by David Nolan, shows two lines. The horizontal line shows economic freedom, like taxation and free trade. The vertical line shows personal freedom, like drug legalization and abortion. This chart helps people see where their political views fit.

Three Telos Model

The "Three Telos Model" is a way to understand political ideas. It looks at three main goals: Freedom, Equality, and Tradition. These goals are shown on a triangle map, not a straight line. This is because if you focus more on one goal, you have less focus on the others.

This idea is very old. Writers like Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville talked about balancing freedom, equality, and tradition. Later, Friedrich Hayek suggested using a triangle to show these ideas. Today, people still use this triangle to explain different political views.

Spatial model

See also: Issue voting and Models of issue voting

The spatial model of voting shows how people and political choices can be placed in a space. Each direction in this space stands for a different political idea. In this model, each person has an "ideal point" — a spot that shows what they believe. People tend to choose the candidate closest to their ideal point.

Many other ways to look at political views are simpler views of this big, many-sided space. For example, studying voters in Germany showed that at least four different directions were needed to capture all the political groups. The way voters and politicians line up in these directions can be asymmetric.

Other proposed dimensions

In 1998, a writer named Virginia Postrel talked about a new way to think about political ideas. She said people have different views about the future. Some people worry about the future and want to control it. Others let the future happen naturally.

Other ways to think about political ideas include:

• Focus on people or groups: Some care more about the whole group, while others care more about the individual.
• How to solve problems: Some believe in talking, some in negotiating, and some in using force.
• Role of beliefs: Some think beliefs should have a big role, while others think they should not.
• City or country life: In some places, this is an important way to see politics.
• Foreign policy: Some think a country should get involved in other countries' affairs, while others think it should stay out.
• Working with other countries: Some think countries should work together, while others think each country should make its own decisions.
• Using force: Some believe in not using force for political ideas, while others think force can be necessary.
• Trading with other countries: Some think markets should work together, while others think each country should be independent.
• Different cultures: Some think a country should have many cultures, while others think it should have one main culture.
• How people make decisions: Some think everyone should decide together, while others think only a few wise people should decide.
• Freedom: Some think rights mean others must help you, while others think rights mean others should not stop you.
• How much control there should be: Some think there should be a lot of control, while others think there should be none at all.
• How fast change should happen: Some want quick change, some want slow change, and some want to go back to the past.
• Where power comes from: Some think people create the government, while others think the government has power all by itself.
• How much power different areas should have: Some think all areas should be equal, while others think some areas should have more power.
• How open a country should be: Some think it should be open to new ideas and trade, while others think it should protect its own traditions.
• Private property: Some think private property should be very protected, while others have different views.
• What is most important: Some think the country is most important, some think all the people together are most important, and some think certain individuals are most important.
• Technology: Some think we should keep improving technology, while others think we should slow down or go back to simpler ways.

Political spectrum–based forecasts

Political spectra can help us guess what might happen in the future. A scholar named Stepan S. Sulakshin discovered that when the range of political views is just right, countries develop better. If the range is too small or too large, problems can happen. He also showed that in the short term, political views shape how things change, not the other way around.

Biological variables

Main article: Biology and political orientation

Some studies suggest that our biology might be linked to our political views. But many of these studies are still being discussed, and more research is needed.

Research shows that people with conservative views might have larger areas in their brains called amygdalae. They may react more strongly to things that seem unpleasant. People with liberal views often have more grey matter in a part of the brain called the anterior cingulate cortex. This helps them deal better with confusing or conflicting information.

For example, a study from the University of California, Los Angeles and New York University found that liberals made fewer mistakes when sorting cards with letters.

Genetic factors also seem to influence political views. From an evolutionary psychology angle, humans may have developed ways to judge their chances in conflicts over things like the redistribution of wealth, which can shape their political beliefs.