Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1 November 1955 – 30 April 1975) was a big fight in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The war was between North Vietnam and South Vietnam and their friends. North Vietnam was helped by the Soviet Union and China. South Vietnam was helped by the United States and other anti-communist countries. This conflict was part of the larger Cold War.

After the French Union left Vietnam in 1954, the country split into two parts. The north was led by Ho Chi Minh. The south was led by Ngo Dinh Diem and had support from the United States. Tensions rose, and fighting started between the communist forces and the government of South Vietnam.

The United States got more involved in the early 1960s. They sent military advisors and later troops. One big event was the Tet Offensive in 1968. This changed many people's opinions in the United States. Over time, the US reduced its forces. The war ended when Saigon fell in 1975.

The Vietnam War changed all the countries involved. It caused many deaths and created changes that lasted a long time. The war also led to refugee crises and health problems for many people because of weapons and chemicals used during the fighting.

Names

The Vietnam War is the most common name for this conflict. It is also called the Second Indochina War because it spread to Laos and Cambodia. Other names include the Vietnam Conflict and the informal term 'Nam.

In South Vietnam, it was called Kháng chiến chống Cộng sản, meaning 'Resistance War against Communists.' North Vietnam and Vietnamese histories today call it Kháng chiến chống Mỹ, cứu nước, meaning 'Resistance War against America to save the nation.' Many Vietnamese people refer to it as Chiến tranh Việt Nam, the Vietnam War.

Background

Main articles: French Indochina, Vietnamese nationalism, and Communism in Vietnam

Vietnam was ruled by France for many years. The Vietnamese people wanted to be free from French control. One leader, Ho Chi Minh, started a group in 1930 called the Indochinese Communist Party to help end French rule.

During World War II, Japan invaded French Indochina. Ho Chi Minh created a group called the Viet Minh to fight Japan. After Japan lost the war, Ho Chi Minh said Vietnam was free. But French soldiers came back to take control again. This led to a war between France and the Viet Minh. The war was part of a bigger struggle called the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. The fighting ended in 1954 when Vietnamese forces won, and Vietnam was split into two parts, North and South.

Transition period

Main articles: 1954 Geneva Conference, 1954 in Vietnam, Operation Passage to Freedom, and Land reform in North Vietnam

The 1954 Geneva Accords stopped the fighting between French forces and communist fighters, but Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel. People could move between the two parts for a while, and elections were planned for 1956 to pick a unified government. But the United States did not support these elections.

Many people moved from the north to the south because they were afraid of being treated badly. The south became the State of Vietnam, led by Ngô Đình Diệm, and the north was led by Ho Chi Minh. Diệm had some opposition and held a vote to become president, which many thought was not fair. This situation made more conflict likely as the country stayed divided.

Diệm era, 1954–63

Main articles: Ngo Dinh Diem and War in Vietnam (1954–1959)

Ngô Đình Diệm became the leader of South Vietnam. He opposed communism and wanted independence. He worked to build a strong government but faced many challenges. His strict rules caused anger and led to more conflict.

During this time, communist fighters, known as the Viet Cong, grew stronger. They wanted to remove American influence and change the government. Fighting increased between these groups and Diệm’s forces, especially in the countryside. The North Vietnamese government supported the communist efforts by sending supplies and soldiers through a secret trail.

Kennedy's escalation, 1961–63

Main articles: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) and Strategic Hamlet Program

In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, John F. Kennedy became president. He wanted to help South Vietnam fight against communist forces. Kennedy sent more military aid and advisors, but no large combat troops. He thought South Vietnamese forces should fight the guerrillas.

The Strategic Hamlet Program started in 1961. It moved rural people into protected villages to keep them safe from attacks. The program did not work well and ended in 1964. During this time, South Vietnam had many political problems, causing more conflict.

Gulf of Tonkin and Johnson's escalation, 1963–69

Main article: Joint warfare in South Vietnam, 1963–1969

Further information: United States in the Vietnam War § Americanization, January 1964 South Vietnamese coup, September 1964 South Vietnamese coup attempt, December 1964 South Vietnamese coup, and 1965 South Vietnamese coup

After President Kennedy was killed in 1963, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president. He wanted to help South Vietnam stay strong against communism. Johnson thought if South Vietnam lost, other nearby countries might also fall. This idea was called the "domino theory."

In August 1964, there was an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin where American ships said they were attacked by North Vietnamese forces. This led to Congress giving President Johnson more power to fight in Vietnam through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Johnson used this to send more American soldiers to Vietnam.

Gulf of Tonkin incident

Main article: Gulf of Tonkin incident

Further information: Credibility gap

On August 2, 1964, the American ship USS Maddox said it was attacked by North Vietnamese boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, another attack was reported on USS Turner Joy and Maddox. These events led to Congress approving the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7, giving President Johnson the power to take stronger actions in Vietnam without asking again.

After this, the United States started bombing North Vietnam. This campaign was called Operation Rolling Thunder. It lasted for three years, and many bombs were dropped to try to stop North Vietnam from helping fighters in the south.

Bombing of Laos

Main article: Laotian Civil War

The United States also bombed parts of Laos, a country next door, to stop supplies and soldiers from reaching South Vietnam. Even though Laos said it wanted to stay out of the fighting, the United States felt it had to act to protect South Vietnam. From 1964 to 1973, many bombs were dropped on Laos.

The 1964 offensive

After the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, North Vietnam got ready for more fighting. They added more soldiers and got better equipment. In battles like Bình Giã and Đồng Xoài, North Vietnamese forces fought in bigger, more direct ways instead of just quick attacks.

American ground war

See also: Buddhist Uprising

In March 1965, the United States sent its first ground troops to South Vietnam. This marked the start of full American involvement in the fighting. General William Westmoreland made a plan with three steps to win the war. It focused on strong attacks against North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. Even with big operations, the enemy would often move away and come back later, keeping control of the war.

Tet Offensive and its aftermath

Main articles: Tet Offensive and United States news media and the Vietnam War

In late 1967, North Vietnamese forces planned a big attack called the Tet Offensive for early 1968. They attacked many cities and bases in South Vietnam, surprising American and South Vietnamese troops. The fighting was hard, especially in the city of Huế.

The Tet Offensive surprised many people because it showed the war was not going as well as some leaders had said. After the attack, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam. The war continued for several more years.

Vietnamization, 1969–72

Nixon began pulling troops out in 1969. His plan, called "Vietnamization," aimed to help South Vietnam's forces defend themselves. During this time, the United States tried to improve relations with the Soviet Union and China, which reduced some tensions.

As the war continued, there were big changes in how North Vietnam fought. After the death of Ho Chi Minh in 1969, North Vietnam changed its strategy. The United States faced growing opposition at home, with many people protesting the war. Important documents called the Pentagon Papers were made public, showing that the government had not been completely honest about the war.

U.S. exit and final campaigns, 1973–75

In early 1973, both sides in the Vietnam War tried to gain more land and people before a ceasefire on January 28. Fighting went on even after the ceasefire, but the United States did not join in. North Vietnam could send supplies to its troops in the South, but only to replace what they had used.

The Nobel Peace Prize was given to Kissinger and Thọ, but Thọ turned it down because he felt peace had not truly started.

As the United States left Vietnam, the South Vietnamese economy struggled because it depended on American help. After some battles, the leader of South Vietnam said the war had begun again. The United States’ new president, Gerald Ford, asked Congress for money to help South Vietnam, but Congress said no and reduced the aid they were sending.

In December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked a place in South Vietnam. Their success surprised everyone. In March 1975, they started a big attack in the Central Highlands. South Vietnamese forces were not ready and had to move back fast. The leader of South Vietnam kept changing his plans, which caused confusion.

With most of the northern part of the country now under their control, the North Vietnamese decided to attack Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, before May 1. Their forces moved quickly and took many cities. By late April, they had Saigon surrounded. On April 30, North Vietnamese troops entered Saigon. The fighting stopped, and Saigon fell. This ended the Vietnam War.

Opposition to US involvement

Main articles: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War and Protests of 1968

See also: Russell Tribunal, Fulbright hearings, and Chicago Seven

As the Vietnam War went on, many Americans became unhappy with their country’s part in it. By 1970, most people thought it was a mistake to send soldiers to Vietnam. Young people often protested because they didn’t want to be forced to fight, and many felt the war did not match America’s values. Over time, protests grew bigger, with large events like the Vietnam Moratorium bringing together millions of people. After the Paris Peace Accords and the end of the draft in 1973, opposition to the war lessened.

Involvement of other countries

Main article: International participation in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War had many countries taking part, helping either North or South Vietnam. China gave North Vietnam support with money, food, and military supplies. They also sent troops and equipment.

The Soviet Union helped North Vietnam too, providing tanks, planes, missiles, and other weapons. Some Soviet crews helped use these missiles against American aircraft. A few Soviet soldiers served in Vietnam and were lost during the conflict.

South Vietnam had support from countries like Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea, as well as the United States. These nations sent troops and supplies to help South Vietnam protect itself. Other countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and Pakistan were allied with South Vietnam through treaties but did not send troops to fight.

United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races

Main articles: United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races and FULRO insurgency

During the Vietnam War, some ethnic groups in South Vietnam, like the Montagnards, Cham, and Khmer Krom, were part of the conflict. They formed a group called the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO). FULRO wanted more control over their land. They fought against South Vietnamese forces and later against the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the war.

War crimes

Main articles: List of war crimes § 1955–1975: Vietnam War, and List of massacres in Vietnam

Both sides in the Vietnam War did some very bad things. These included hurting people who were not fighting, attacking places where families lived, and treating prisoners badly. These actions broke the rules that should protect people during wars.

The United States and its allies were found to have broken these rules in some cases. There were reports that soldiers hurt or treated civilians very badly in some villages.

North Vietnam and the Viet Cong also did harmful things. They used fear to control some areas and attacked civilians sometimes. Both sides did things that were wrong and hurt innocent people.

Women

Main article: Women in the Vietnam War

Women had important jobs during the Vietnam War. Many Vietnamese women worked in the military. They helped take care of the sick, moved supplies, and supported soldiers. They also took on jobs at home that were usually done by men.

Even though women helped a lot, they sometimes were treated unfairly. After the war, some women who served found it hard to fit back into their communities. Today, women work to fix problems left from the war, like the effects of chemicals used during the fighting.

Black servicemen

Main article: Military history of African Americans in the Vietnam War

African-American soldiers were very important in the Vietnam War. They sometimes faced unfair treatment and had to take on bigger risks in battles than other soldiers. Civil rights leaders talked about these problems. This helped make things a little better by the end of the war. Even so, there were still some difficulties.

Weapons

Main article: List of weapons of the Vietnam War

In the Vietnam War, both sides used many different weapons. The United States and its allies used rifles such as the M1 Garand, M1 carbine, M14 rifle, and M16 rifle. Soldiers from Australia and New Zealand often used the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle and sometimes the M16 rifle.

North Vietnam and the Viet Cong used weapons from China and the Soviet Union, along with some older weapons. They also made some of their own weapons, including explosives and rocket launchers. By the late 1960s, the U.S. Army knew about many types of rifles, machine guns, mortars, and rocket launchers used in the war.

Casualties

See also: Vietnam War body count controversy

The Vietnam War caused many deaths on all sides. Many people died, including soldiers and civilians from North and South Vietnam.

Many soldiers also lost their lives. South Vietnam’s military lost many soldiers. The United States lost soldiers as well. In nearby countries, people in Cambodia and Laos also died because of the war.

Exact numbers are hard to determine.

Aftermath

In July 1976, North and South Vietnam joined to become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Many people from South Vietnam were sent to special camps where they worked very hard.

The Vietnam War also affected other countries. In Cambodia, a new group took control and caused suffering. In Laos, many bombs were dropped, and some did not explode, causing problems even today. Many people from Southeast Asia had to leave their homes and found new places to live, with many moving to the United States and other countries.

In the United States, the war caused big changes. It made people think differently about military actions. The war was very costly, and it made people ask questions about decisions made by leaders. American soldiers who fought also faced health problems after the war.