Ainu people

The Ainu (/ˈaɪnuː/) are an indigenous ethnic group who reside in northern Japan and southeastern Russia, including Hokkaido and the Tōhoku region of Honshu, as well as the land surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk, such as Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and the Khabarovsk Krai. They have lived in these areas, known to them as "Ainu Mosir" (meaning "the land of the Ainu"), since before the arrival of the modern Yamato and Russians. Along with the Yamato and Ryukyuan ethnic groups, the Ainu people are one of the primary historic ethnic groups of Japan.

Official surveys in 2023 recorded around 11,450 known Ainu in Hokkaido, with estimates suggesting the total Ainu population in Japan may be much higher due to assimilation. Unfortunately, the Ainu faced strict policies that forced them to abandon their traditional ways of life, language, and culture during Japan's expansion into Hokkaido in the 19th century. Today, efforts are underway to revive Ainu traditions and language.

Names

The Ainu people call themselves "Ainu," which means "a human being" in their language. They also use the name "Utari," meaning "comrades" or "people." The name "Ainu" first appeared in old writings from the late 1500s and became common in the 1800s.

Historically, other names were used for the Ainu by their neighbors. For example, the Sakhalin Ainu called themselves "Enchiw." In old Japanese records, they were sometimes called "Emishi," a term that is considered offensive today.

History

The Ainu are considered the native people of Hokkaido, southern Sakhalin, and the Kurils. Ainu place names show they once lived in several places throughout northern Honshu. Their ancestors, called Emishi, were gradually brought under Japanese control starting in the 9th century and pushed toward the northern islands.

The period known as the Nibutani or "Ainu" period followed older cultures like the Epi-Jōmon and Satsumon. During this time, the Ainu focused on hunting, fishing, and gathering. They lived off sika deer, Ussuri brown bears, salmon, shellfish, and edible seaweed. Their religious practices honored nature, similar to beliefs in Yamato Japan and shared some customs with indigenous peoples of Siberia.

Later, the Mongols and Ming dynasty of China influenced the Ainu through tribute systems and trade. The Qing dynasty continued these policies, imposing a fur tribute system and encouraging trade. Meanwhile, Japanese influence grew, especially through the Matsumae clan, leading to increased contact and eventual colonization of Hokkaido. These changes brought significant challenges to Ainu society, including population declines from diseases and shifts in traditional ways of life.

Origins and genetics

Main article: Origins of the Ainu

The Ainu are thought to be descendants of the indigenous Japanese hunter-gatherers who lived in Japan during the Jōmon period, which lasted from about 14,000 to 300 BCE.

Researchers believe the Ainu are connected to the Satsumon culture of the Epi-Jōmon period, with some later influences from the Okhotsk culture. This means their culture developed mainly from the Satsumon culture, with some additions from nearby groups. The Ainu culture is often described as a "cultural complex" because it includes different regional groups. Over time, Europeans sometimes tried to link the Ainu to white Europeans because of certain physical traits, but this idea is not supported by modern research. Genetic studies show that the Ainu are closely related to other Northern and East Asian populations, especially the ancient Jōmon people of Japan.

Culture

Main articles: Ainu culture, Ainu cuisine, Ainu music, and Yukar

Traditional Ainu culture is quite different from Japanese culture. The Ainu culture developed from the 13th century to the present day. While most Ainu in Japan now live similarly to ethnic Japanese due to assimilation policies, many still maintain their Ainu identity and respect for traditional ways, known as "Ainu puri". The distinctive Ainu patterns and oral literature have been designated as Hokkaido Heritage.

The Ainu language has very few speakers left today. Despite this, there is an active movement to revitalize the language, mainly in Hokkaido. The Ainu language is considered a language isolate, with no known relation to other languages. Ainu society was traditionally organized into small villages called kotan, usually located near rivers or seashores. Traditional Ainu dress includes robes made from woven bark fibers, and both men and women often wear beards and tattoos. Traditional dwellings are reed-thatched huts with a fireplace in the center. Ainu cuisine includes bear, fish, and various grains, with salmon being particularly important. The Ainu traditionally hunted animals like bears and deer, and fished for salmon and trout. Traditional Ainu ornaments include crowns for men and headbands for women.

The Ainu people have various types of marriage, including arrangements made by parents or mutual consent. Children are raised almost naked until about age four or five. The Ainu are traditionally animists, believing that everything in nature has a spirit or god. Ceremonies include making libations of sake and offering willow sticks with wooden shavings. The Ainu believe their spirits are immortal and will ascend to the Land of the Gods after death. Traditional dances are performed at ceremonies and festivals.

Incorporating Ainu into archaeology

Archaeologists have studied the Ainu people using methods that did not always respect their traditions. Recently, there have been efforts to change this by including Ainu rituals in archaeological work. One such ritual is the "Kamui-nomi," a traditional ceremony where prayers are offered to gods for safety and well-being. During this ceremony, sacred sticks called "inaw" are used and later placed in the Ishikari River.

In the past, policies tried to make the Ainu adopt dominant cultures, which harmed their language and traditions. Today, there are efforts to revive Ainu identity by preserving their language, arts, and spiritual practices.

Institutions

The Ainu people in Hokkaido have an organization called the Hokkaido Ainu Association, which was renamed the Hokkaido Utari Association in 1961 but changed back to its original name in 2009. This group helps preserve Ainu culture and is now managed by Ainu people themselves.

There are also important places for Ainu culture, such as museums and research centers. These include the National Ainu Museum, the Kawamura Kaneto Ainu Museum, and the Hokkaido University Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies. The Ainu have also built strong connections with the Sámi people of northern Europe to share and support their cultures.

Ethnic rights

In 1997, a very important court decision in Japan recognized the Ainu people's right to keep their special culture and traditions. This happened because the government wanted to build dams that would affect land where many Ainu people lived. Two Ainu leaders refused to give up their land, leading to a lawsuit. Though the court could not stop the dam, it acknowledged the Ainu as Japan's indigenous people for the first time.

Over the years, Japan has taken steps to better support Ainu rights. In 2012, an Ainu political party was formed to help Ainu and Japanese live together fairly. In 2020, a special museum called the National Ainu Museum opened to share Ainu history and culture with everyone. The museum is located in Shiraoi, Hokkaidō, and is called "Upopoy" in the Ainu language, meaning "singing in a large group."

Geography

The traditional homes of the Ainu people are in Hokkaido, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, and northern Tōhoku. Many place names in these areas come from the Ainu language.

In 1756, officials from the Edo period began policies to change Ainu culture. Later, in 1945, when the Soviet Union took control of some areas, many Ainu moved back to Japan. Today, small groups of Ainu live in Russia, but they face challenges in getting official recognition.

Population

The number of Ainu people has changed over time. During the Edo period, there were about 26,800 Ainu. By 2006, a survey in Hokkaido found around 23,782 Ainu people, but a later survey in 2017 showed a drop to about 13,000. This change is partly because fewer people are joining the Ainu Association of Hokkaido Ainu Association of Hokkaido and more people are protecting their personal information.

Many Ainu also live outside Hokkaido. In 1988, about 2,700 Ainu lived in Tokyo, and some reports say there may be over 10,000 Ainu in the Tokyo area alone. There are also reports of Ainu descendants living in other countries, such as Poland. However, the exact number of Ainu people today is not known because Japan does not count Ainu separately in its national census.

In popular culture

The Ainu people have appeared more often in Japanese popular culture and media in recent decades. They are featured in anime, video games, and films. For example, the manga and anime series Golden Kamuy includes several Ainu characters, and the protagonist learns about their culture from a young Ainu girl named Asirpa.

Other stories, like the manga and anime Shaman King, feature an Ainu shaman named Horohoro who is helped by a spirit called a Korpokkur. The film Ainu Mosir tells the story of a young Ainu boy dealing with his identity and traditions. The video game Ghost of Yōtei also includes an Ainu village and lets players collect Ainu artifacts.