Archaeology of the Philippines

The archaeology of the Philippines is the study of past societies in the territory of the modern Republic of the Philippines, an island country in Southeast Asia, through material culture.

The history of the Philippines often talks about times when the country was ruled by Spain and later became independent from both Spain and the United States. During these times, people did not use archaeology much; they mostly studied languages and cultures. Archaeology in the Philippines was greatly influenced by H. Otley Beyer, who began teaching anthropology there in 1914. Beyer's lessons inspired many students to explore archaeology.

After the Philippines became independent from America in 1946, many of Beyer's students began working as archaeologists across the country. Some of these important archaeologists include Robert B. Fox, Alfredo Evangelista, and F. Landa Jocano. Their work helped make Philippine archaeology stronger and better at understanding old objects and places.

There are many important places in the Philippines where amazing discoveries have been made, dating back to different times. Some well-known sites are the Rizal Archaeological Site in Kalinga, Tabon Caves, Lapuz Lapuz Cave, and Singhapala. Famous artifacts found in the Philippines include the Callao Man, Tabon Man, and the Kabayan Mummies of Benguet.

History

Colonial period

During the Spanish colonial period, there was very little archaeological work done in the Philippines. Although the Spanish were interested in learning about the people of the islands, their studies focused more on understanding their culture and language rather than archaeology.

Some explorers visited sites, but the only detailed study was done by a French archaeologist named Alfred Marche in 1881. He looked at burial caves on two islands and collected many old items that are now kept in a museum in Paris.

After the Philippines became a part of the United States in 1898, the new government encouraged the study of the country's people. An American named H. Otley Beyer started the anthropology department at the University of the Philippines in 1914 and led many early archaeological projects.

Post-independence

When the Philippines became independent in 1946, Beyer kept working until 1954. Other archaeologists, such as Wilhelm Solheim and Robert B. Fox, also made important discoveries, like pottery from ancient times found in caves.

Many archaeologists studied and worked together, making new findings and helping to understand the past of the Philippines better. They examined old items and sites, adding to the knowledge of the country's history.

Notable sites and discoveries

Stone Age

The earliest signs of people living in the Philippines are about 700,000 years old. These signs include a rhinoceros that was cut up and stone tools found near the rhinoceros in Kalinga Province in Luzon. These tools and bones suggest that early humans, possibly called Homo erectus or Denisovans, lived there long before modern humans, Homo sapiens, arrived.

One of the oldest human fossils found in the Asia Pacific region is the Callao Man, discovered in Callao cave. It is about 67,000 years old. Another important site is the Tabon Caves, which were home to people between 50,000 and 9,000 years ago. Finds there include the Tabon Man, one of the oldest known human remains in the Philippines.

Research from Ateneo de Manila University shows that people in the Philippines had advanced sea travel and trading networks around 35,000 years ago.

Lithic studies - Stone-tool traditions

Studying stone tools became very important in Philippine archaeology in the late 20th century. Tools from Luzon, Palawan, and Mindoro show that early people used different kinds of stones and made tools in special ways.

One important collection of stone tools came from Arubo 1 in General Tinio, Nueva Ecija. These tools include a special kind of stone tool called a proto-handaxe and were made from chert found nearby.

Neolithic

The Angono Petroglyphs are the oldest known art in the Philippines. These carvings on a rock wall in Rizal province are about 127 figures of people and animals, likely made during the late Neolithic period. They show human figures, frogs, lizards, and other designs, possibly related to healing and magic. The National Museum of the Philippines named them a National Cultural Treasure in 1973.

Other important sites include petroglyphs and paintings in Mountain Province, Cagayan Province, southern Palawan, Eastern Bohol, and more. The Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens along the Cagayan River are being considered for UNESCO World Heritage Site status.

A Yawning Jarlet found in Palawan is the earliest known pot in the country. Bark cloth beaters, tools used to make bark cloth, were also found. Jade artifacts, made from white and green nephrite and dating back to 2000–1500 BC, show that a “jade culture” existed in the Philippines.

Metal Age

The Manunggul Jar, from 890–710 B.C., is a burial jar from Palawan. It shows figures that may represent a journey to the afterlife.

Artifacts from the Sa Huynh-Kalanay pottery complex in Masbate date from 400 BC to 1500 AD. The Sa Huynh culture was a group of people in central and southern Vietnam who lived between 1000 BC and 200 AD. They were likely the ancestors of the Cham people, who started the kingdom of Champa.

The Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery, found in Sarangani Province, dates from 190 BC to 500 AD. These jars, made of earthenware, show human figures and are thought to relate to beliefs about life after death.

Early Historic Period (900–1521)

Architecture

Indigenous architecture

The Idjang is a triangle-shaped limestone and wood citadel built in Batanes Islands.

The Limestone tombs of Kamhantik are the remains of a thousand-year-old village in Quezon Province. It includes fifteen limestone coffins from the 10th to 14th century.

Islamic architecture

The Sheik Karimol Makhdum Mosque in Tawi-Tawi is the oldest mosque in the Philippines. It was built in 1380 by an Arab trader named Sheikh Makhdum Karim and is a National Historical Landmark.

Burial sites and grave artifacts

The Oton death mask, found in Iloilo, is a gold nose-disc and eye mask used to cover the faces of the dead. It was brought from China to the Philippines between the late 14th to 15th century.

The Kabayan Mummies of Benguet are mummies made from as early as 2000 BC until the 16th century. They are kept in natural caves and a museum in Kabayan.

Clothing or jewelry

The Banton Colth is the earliest known warp ikat textile in Southeast Asia. Estimated to be 400 years old, it was found in Banton Island, Romblon.

Lingling-o are pendant or amulet shapes associated with various Indigenous cultures of the Philippines since the early metal age. The earliest examples were made from Nephrite jade.

The Philippines has many ancient gold artifacts.

Currency

Piloncitos are the earliest form of precious metal currency in the Philippines. They are made of pure gold and weigh between .5 grams to more than 3 grams.

Gold ring currencies are gold ring-like ingots traded by early Filipinos.

Documents, inscriptions, or seals

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is the oldest written document in the Philippines, found in Lumban River and dated 900 AD. It is written in Kawi.

The Butuan Silver Paleograph is a piece of metal with Kawi inscriptions found in Butuan province in the mid-1970s.

The Ticao Stone Inscription, also known as the Monreal stone or Rizal Stone, is a limestone with ancient Baybayin script. It was found by pupils of Rizal Elementary School on Ticao Island.

The Baybayin Archives of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila hold the largest collection of ancient Baybayin alphabets in the world.

The Butuan Ivory Seal is an ivory stamp or seal associated with a Rhinoceros Ivory Tusk, dated 9th–12th century, found in Butuan in Agusan del Norte. It is inscribed with the word Butban in stylized Kawi.

Iconography

Hindu-Buddhist

Artifacts show the influence of Vajrayana Buddhism and its effects on the Philippines's early states.

The Bronze Lokesvara is a bronze statue found in Tondo, Manila.

The Buddha Amithaba bass relief is a Buddhist image reproduced on a clay medallion from Calatagan, showing Buddha Amithaba in the tribhanga pose.

The Golden Garuda of Palawan is an image of Garuda, a mythical bird, found in the Tabon Caves.

Bronze Ganesha statues have been found in Puerto Princesa, Palawan, and Mactan, Cebu.

The Mactan Alokitesvara is a bronze statue excavated in Mactan, Cebu, which may mix Buddhist and Hindu features.

The Golden Tara was discovered in Esperanza, Agusan, and is dated to 900–950 CE. It was taken to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.

The Golden Kinnari is a golden-vessel kinnari found in Surigao. The kinnari represents enlightened action in Buddhist mythology.

Padmapani and Nandi images include Padmapani, also known as Avalokitesvara, and golden jewelry with images of Nandi.

Ships

The Balangay (Butuan Boat) is the first wooden watercraft excavated in Southeast Asia, showing early Filipino craftsmanship and seamanship. The Balanghai Festival in Butuan celebrates early migrants who arrived in the Philippines on Balangay boats.

The Pandanan Shipwreck is a 15th-century archaeological site excavated in 1995. It is believed to be a Southeast Asian cargo boat that sank due to bad weather.

Utensils

Indigenous utensil artifacts

The Calatagan Ritual pot is a clay pot with Badlit inscriptions, possibly used in ceremonies.

Tradeware artifacts

Porcelain tradeware

Porcelain tradeware from Vietnam, Taiwan, and China was very common during the Philippines "late metal age," leading some early scholars to call this period the Philippines' "Porcelain age." Porcelain entered the Philippines around the nineteenth century A.D. along with glazed stoneware from Southeast Asia.

The "Flying elephant of Lenna Shoal" plate is a notable example of Chinese tradeware, with only two known examples in the world today.

Colonial (1521–1946)

Spanish colonial period

The Magellan's Cross is a Christian cross planted by Portuguese and Spanish explorers as ordered by Ferdinand Magellan upon arriving in Cebu in the Philippines on March 15, 1521.

The Santo Niño de Cebú is a statue of the Child Jesus in Cebu City, given in 1521 by explorer Ferdinand Magellan to Rajah Humabon and his wife. It is one of the oldest Christian relics in the Philippines.

The Black Nazarene is a life-sized image of Jesus Christ carrying the Cross, housed in the Minor Basilica of the Black Nazarene in Manila. It was carved in the 16th century in Mexico and brought to the Philippines in 1606.

The Boxer Codex is a manuscript from around 1590 containing illustrations of ethnic groups in the Philippines at the time of contact with Spaniards.

The Doctrina Christiana is an early book on Roman Catholic Catechism, written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia, and believed to be one of the earliest printed books in the Philippines.

The Murillo Map, also known as Carta hydrographica y chorographica de las Islas Filipinas, is a map of the Philippine Islands published by Pedro Murillo Velarde in 1774. It was drawn and engraved by Filipino artisans Francisco Suarez and Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay.

The Magellan Shrine is a site related to the arrival of Magellan.

Fort Santiago is a citadel built by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi for the new city of Manila. It is part of the walled city of Manila known as Intramuros.

Fort Capul in Northern Samar was founded in 1596 by the Jesuits and became a focal point for the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade. It is a fort town with architecture based on protection against Moro raiders.

The Ruins of Old Tanauan church in Batangas Province are remains of a church structure from the Spanish Colonial Period. It was the site of the first stone church of Tanauan before the town moved to its present location in 1754.

The Cagsawa Ruins are the remnants of a 16th-century Franciscan church, originally built in 1587 but burned down by Dutch pirates in 1636. It was destroyed again during the eruption of Mayon Volcano on February 1, 1814. The ruins are located in Daraga, Albay, and are part of Cagsawa Park.

The City of Vigan, located on the western coast of Luzon, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is one of the few towns in the Philippines with mostly intact old structures, known for its cobblestone streets and colonial architecture blending Native Philippine and Oriental designs with Spanish colonial style. It was recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities in 2015.

The Banaue Rice Terraces were constructed in the 1650s as an Indigenous response to Spanish colonial rule in the lowlands.

American colonial period

The El Fraile Island, also known as Fort Drum, is a reinforced concrete fortress shaped like a battleship. It was built by the United States in 1909 as one of the harbor defenses at the wider South Channel entrance to Manila Bay. It was captured by the Japanese during World War II and later recaptured by the U.S.

The Malinta Tunnel is a tunnel complex built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers on Corregidor Island. It was used as a bomb-proof storage and personnel bunker and later as a 1,000-bed hospital. The main tunnel is 831 feet long, 24 feet wide, and 18 feet high, with 13 lateral tunnels on the north side and 11 on the south side.

The Pearl of Lao Tzu, also known as the Pearl of Allah, is the largest known pearl, found in the Palawan sea. It measures 24 centimeters in diameter and weighs 6.4 kilograms. It is a "clam pearl" from a giant clam.

Contemporary artifacts (1947 onwards)

Macliing Dulag's door is preserved at the University of the Philippines Baguio's Museo Kordilyera. The door still has bullet holes from when the Philippine Army's 4th Infantry Division attacked and killed protest leader Macliing Dulag on April 24, 1980.