Atlantic slave trade

The Atlantic slave trade was a big part of history where people were taken from Africa to work in places like the Americas. It started in the 15th century and went on until the 19th century. Ships called slave ships used a route known as the triangular trade, which included a part called the Middle Passage. Most of the people taken were from Central Africa and West Africa. They were captured or sold by local traders to Europeans who then took them across the ocean.

European countries needed workers for their colonies, especially to grow things like sugarcane. The Portuguese were the first to bring enslaved people to Brazil in 1526. Over time, many countries like Britain, Spain, France, and the United States joined in. About 12 million to 12.8 million Africans were forced onto these ships. Many sadly did not survive the journey or the hard work that followed. Later, many countries worked to stop this unfair trade, though it continued secretly for some time.

Background

Atlantic travel

The Atlantic slave trade started after Europeans began traveling between the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) and the New World (the Americas). For centuries, ocean travel was difficult because of strong currents. In the 1400s, Europeans developed better ships, like the caravel, which could handle these currents. This allowed them to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Portuguese sailors may have created a school to improve navigation skills.

Between 1600 and 1800, around 300,000 sailors from Europe visited West Africa as part of the slave trade. They met people along the African coast and in the Americas whom they had never encountered before.

European explorers were driven to find new trade opportunities and to access valuable goods like gold and spices without relying on Muslim traders. Many European countries, including Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Italian states, and the Netherlands, were involved in exploring the Atlantic. This exploration connected the Old and New Worlds, leading to the Columbian exchange. Europeans brought animals like cattle and horses to the Americas, while receiving new crops like tobacco and potatoes.

European slavery in Portugal and Spain

Slavery existed in Portugal and Spain for a long time. Ancient Rome had a system of slavery, and after the fall of the Roman Empire, slavery continued in the Christian and Islamic kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. In the 1400s, Portuguese traders captured Africans and took them to Europe as slaves. They also built a fort for the slave trade on the coast of Africa.

During the Middle Ages, religion often determined who could be enslaved. Christians did not enslave other Christians, and Muslims did not enslave other Muslims, but both groups could enslave people of different religions. This included enslaving pagans, who became a common target for the slave trade. In the 1400s, Spain created a law called "limpieza de sangre," which prevented people with Jewish or Muslim ancestry from living in new lands. This law led to the enslavement of some Jews and Muslims.

In the 1400s, Europeans began using both race and religion to justify enslaving Africans. As more Africans were enslaved, Europeans started connecting slavery with skin color. The term "race" began to be used in the 1500s to describe family and lineage, and later it was used to justify continuing the slave trade and discrimination.

African slavery

Slavery was common in many parts of Africa for centuries before the Atlantic slave trade began. Enslaved people were often captured in wars between African states and sold. Europeans would buy these enslaved people and take them to the Americas. Some Africans sold captives from neighboring groups, creating a large market for the slave trade. While enslaved people in Africa sometimes had chances to escape, those taken away had little hope of returning home.

European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa

The Atlantic slave trade began in 1441 when Portuguese explorers kidnapped twelve Africans and took them to Portugal. By 1500, Portugal had taken 50,000 Africans to work as servants, artisans, and farmers, and on sugar plantations. After Portugal and Spain, other European countries like England also began participating in the slave trade.

European traders made agreements with some African rulers to trade peacefully, but there were also conflicts. In some cases, Europeans tried to take control of areas by force. Despite these challenges, trade continued, with African states often setting their own terms, like charging taxes on foreign ships. Some African leaders, like Queen Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, resisted Portuguese attempts to expand the slave trade and fought to protect their people.

16th, 17th, and 18th centuries

The Atlantic slave trade began in the 16th century when Europeans started taking enslaved Africans to the Americas. This trade continued for centuries, with European ships traveling a route known as the triangular trade. Enslaved Africans were taken from Africa to work on plantations in the Americas, producing goods like sugar and cotton to be sent back to Europe.

In the early years, the Portuguese and Spanish were the main groups involved in the slave trade. Later, the English, French, and Dutch also became major participants. The trade reached its peak in the 18th century, with millions of Africans being forcibly taken to the Americas. The demand for labor on plantations was a major reason for this trade, as European settlers needed workers to cultivate crops in the New World.

Human toll

The movement of enslaved people from Africa to the Americas caused many deaths. Estimates suggest that between 2 million and 60 million people may have died, though the exact number is still unknown. Over a million people likely died during the journey to the New World, and many more died soon after arriving.

Historians note that the suffering did not end when people reached the Americas. Many factors affected the lives of those who were enslaved, including where they were taken, the type of work they were forced to do, their age, and their gender.

During the years between the 1500s and 1800s, around 12 million people were taken from Africa. About 1.5 million died during the ocean journey. About 10.5 million people reached the Americas. Many more died in Africa during raids or while being forced to walk to the coast. Some estimates suggest that 4 million people died in Africa before ever reaching a ship.

The effects of this trade were deep and lasting, destroying many lives and cultures. The journey and conditions led to many deaths from disease, harsh treatment, and other causes. The impact of these events continues to be felt today.

Main article: Middle Passage

Conditions of slavery on plantations before and after abolition of the transatlantic slave trade

Caribbean

Many enslaved people in Haiti faced very hard conditions, and many did not live long. Life for enslaved people was very difficult, and many children did not grow up to be adults.

In places like the Caribbean, Dutch Guiana, and Brazil, the number of enslaved people often went down because many died and few new babies were born. Plantations needed more workers, so more enslaved people were brought from Africa. Work was very hard, especially on sugar plantations, and many children died from sickness.

The Atlantic slave trade to Cuba was made illegal in 1820, but Cuba kept bringing in enslaved Africans until slavery ended in 1886. After the slave trade stopped in the United States and British colonies in 1807, Florida still got enslaved people from Cuba. This happened secretly, and it continued until the United States took control of Florida in 1821.

The cost of bringing enslaved people from Africa went up in the mid-1800s. Prices for younger enslaved people went up because they were seen as stronger workers. In Cuba, the price of enslaved people changed based on age and the need for labor on sugar plantations.

South America

In Brazil, enslaved people did not live very long. The Atlantic slave trade to Brazil was made illegal in 1831, so slaveholders made plans to keep slavery going by forcing enslaved women to have many children. Some were promised freedom if they had many children, but this was not always kept. Brazil used laws to make sure the number of enslaved people grew, even after the trade was outlawed.

After the Atlantic slave trade ended, Brazil needed more enslaved workers, so they depended on enslaved women to have many children. Some people wanted to end slavery by changing these laws, which would let children of enslaved women be born free, though they would have to work for their mothers’ owners until they were older.

United States

Main articles: Slave trade in the United States, Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States, and History of slavery in the United States by state

In the United States, the number of enslaved people grew because many babies were born to enslaved mothers. After the Atlantic slave trade was stopped in 1807, slaveholders in the Deep South needed more workers for cotton and sugar fields. They started forcing enslaved women to have many children. This happened in places like Richmond, Virginia, which became known for selling enslaved people to the Deep South.

Enslaved women and girls were forced to have many children, which was very hard on their health. Some found ways to resist by preventing pregnancies. Enslaved people were sold from places like Louisville, Kentucky, down the Mississippi River to markets in the Deep South. New Orleans became a big market for enslaved people after 1807.

Texas was also involved in illegal slave trade, bringing enslaved people from Cuba to Galveston Island. After Texas became part of the United States, many enslaved people were smuggled in from Cuba to work on plantations. Some people made a lot of money by doing this, including someone named Jean Lafitte, who helped bring in many enslaved people to the United States.

British involvement

As Britain's navy grew stronger and they settled in North America and the West Indies, they became the main sellers of enslaved people. At first, the Royal African Company in London controlled this trade. But after 1689, merchants from Bristol and Liverpool joined in. By the late 1700s, one in four ships leaving Liverpool carried enslaved people. The wealth of cities like Manchester grew partly from processing cotton picked by enslaved people. Other British cities also gained from this trade. For example, Birmingham made many guns that were used in the trade. Most of the sugar from plantations went to London, where it was sold in popular coffee houses.

New World destinations

Creole languages and cultures

During the time of the Atlantic slave trade, a new way of speaking developed along the African coast. It mixed West African languages with European ones and was called West African Pidgin English. This helped people from different places talk to each other. In places like São Tomé, people created their own special languages, blending African and European words.

In the Americas, these mixed languages grew into new ones. Some of these new languages include Gullah, Haitian Creole, Kouri-Vini, and Jamaican Patois. These languages helped enslaved people talk to each other and to their enslavers. They also kept parts of their African heritage alive.

Caribbean

The first enslaved people arrived in the New World in 1502 on the island of Hispaniola, which is now Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Other places like Cuba, Jamaica, and Brazil also received many enslaved Africans. In Cuba alone, around 800,000 people were brought there. They worked very hard on farms growing sugar and brought their African traditions with them.

Central America

Slave exports to Honduras and Guatemala started in 1526. Many of the enslaved people came from places in West Africa like present-day Senegambia. They were forced to work on farms growing sugar and other crops.

United States

Further information: Rhode Island slave trade

The first enslaved Africans arrived in what would become the United States in 1526. Over time, many more people were brought to places like Virginia and Massachusetts. In some areas, enslaved people made up a large part of the population. They were forced to work on farms and in other jobs.

South America

In South America, both Spanish and Portuguese colonizers enslaved Indigenous people and later brought Africans from West and Central Africa. Brazil received the most enslaved people, with about 4.8 million arriving there. These people created their own communities and kept some of their African traditions alive, creating new religions and cultures.

Russia

By 1802, some traders from the United States were involved in trading enslaved people with Indigenous groups in Southeast Alaska.

Economics of slavery

In the 1700s, investing in sugar plantations could bring good returns for people in places like France. These investments were sometimes risky because of problems at sea or in business, but investors could lower their risks by spreading their money across many ships.

By 1800, the United Kingdom had the most profitable sugar islands, such as Jamaica, Trinidad, the Leeward Islands, and Barbados. This success grew even more when France lost its main sugar island, St. Domingue (now Haiti), after a revolt by enslaved people in 1791.

After this, British sugar became very common, especially as something added to tea. Some historians believe that the money made from the slave trade and sugar plantations helped shape the British economy during the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s.

When the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 ended slavery in the British Empire, the government paid money to former slave owners, but not to the people who had been enslaved.

Effects

When the slave trade began in the 1500s, Europe and Africa used similar tools and technologies. Europe's main advantage was better shipbuilding. During this time, Europe and the Americas grew, while Africa's population stayed the same. Some believe the money from slavery helped Europe grow and invent new things, like the steam engine.

Historians have different views on how the slave trade affected Africa. Some say Africa was not greatly changed, while others argue it caused big problems. Some African leaders traded slaves for goods like guns, which helped them. But others believe this hurt Africa in the long run.

Some say the money from slavery helped Britain's economy grow. Others disagree, saying it was a small part of the economy. Views differ on how much it mattered.

The slave trade caused big changes in Africa's population. Some areas lost many people, changing the number of men and women. Others argue that Africa handled the loss better than some think.

The slave trade changed African cultures. Traditional beliefs and ways of life were replaced by new ideas brought from Europe. Trade routes shifted, and new leaders rose to power.

As the slave trade grew, African coastal towns changed. They became busy trading places instead of fishing villages. Later, Europeans took control of more of Africa.

The slave trade left a lasting mark on how people see others. It created ideas about racial differences that still affect the world today. Many now see these old ideas as wrong and unfair.

End of the Atlantic slave trade

Many people from different backgrounds worked to stop the Atlantic slave trade. Some were African leaders who spoke out against it, while others were from Europe and the Americas. They used many ways to fight for change, such as sharing stories about the harsh conditions of slavery and pushing for laws to end the trade.

Countries began to pass laws against the slave trade in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Britain banned the trade in 1807 and used its navy to stop other countries from continuing it. The United States passed a law in 1808 to stop bringing in new slaves from abroad, though internal slave trading continued. Brazil was the last country to end the Atlantic slave trade, doing so in 1850, though it took some time for the practice to stop completely.

Legacy

Sierra Leone

Main articles: Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor and Sierra Leone Creole people

In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves move to Sierra Leone. Most of the first group died from disease and fighting, but about 64 survived and started a new place called the "Province of Freedom."

In 1792, 1200 more freed slaves from Nova Scotia settled and created the Colony of Sierra Leone and the town of Freetown. Many had fought for the British during a big war and were offered freedom.

Liberia

Main articles: American Colonization Society and Americo-Liberian people

In 1816, a group of wealthy people started the American Colonization Society to send freed African Americans to West Africa. In 1820, they sent their first ship to Liberia, and over time, around two thousand African Americans settled there. This continued through the 1800s.

Rastafari movement

The Rastafari movement, which started in Jamaica, works to keep the memory of slavery alive, especially through reggae music.

Apologies

Worldwide

In 1998, a special day was created to remember the slave trade and its end. In 2001, African nations asked former slave-trading countries for a clear apology, but some countries were not ready to say sorry.

On March 25, 2026, a big group of countries voted to call the enslavement of Africans the "gravest crime against humanity."

Benin

In 1999, the leader of Benin said sorry for the role Africans played in the slave trade.

Denmark

Denmark had traded many enslaved Africans for over 200 years. In 1992, a Danish leader said the day the islands became part of the U.S. was a dark day for Denmark. He talked about how they sold enslaved people instead of giving them freedom.

France

In 2006, the leader of France said May 10 would be a day to remember victims of slavery.

Ghana

The leader of Ghana also said sorry for his country’s role in the slave trade.

Netherlands

In 2001, a Dutch leader said the Netherlands knew about the wrong things done in the past. In 2013, the Dutch government said they were very sorry for their part in the slave trade. In 2022, the leader of the Netherlands said sorry again, and some people still wanted the king to say sorry too.

Nigeria

In 2009, a group in Nigeria asked African leaders to say sorry for their part in the slave trade.

United Kingdom

In 1999, the city of Liverpool said sorry for its part in the slave trade. In 2006 and 2007, the leader of Britain said sorry, but some people thought it wasn’t enough. In 2020, the Bank of England said sorry for having leaders who owned or traded enslaved people.

United States

In 2007, Virginia was the first U.S. state to say sorry for its role in slavery. Other states followed. In 2008 and 2009, the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate also said sorry for slavery and unfair laws that followed. Slavery was legal in the U.S. from 1776 until 1865, mostly in the South. Even after slavery ended, unfair treatments continued.