Aurangzeb

Alamgir I, commonly known as Aurangzeb, was the sixth Mughal emperor. He ruled from 1658 until his death in 1707. During his time, the Mughal Empire grew to its largest size, covering almost all of the Indian subcontinent.

Aurangzeb was the son of Shah Jahan, and he served in important positions before becoming emperor. He became emperor after a struggle with his brother Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb expanded the empire through many military campaigns and made the Mughal army very strong.

Aurangzeb was a devoted Muslim and built many mosques. He also created important laws for the empire. However, his rule is remembered in different ways. Some people criticize him for treating non-Muslims unfairly, while others defend his actions and say he was fair to all his subjects. His time as emperor left a complex legacy that people still talk about today.

Early life

Aurangzeb was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618. He was the sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. Aurangzeb was a descendant of Timur through his father.

As a young prince, Aurangzeb studied many subjects including combat, military strategy, and administration. He also learned about Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature. Aurangzeb spoke the Hindustani language well. He also knew his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic, though he preferred Persian. He learned the Quran and the hadith.

When Aurangzeb was fifteen, he showed great bravery. During an event, a war elephant ran through a camp. Aurangzeb rode towards the elephant and threw a spear at it. Though he fell off his horse, he was safe. His father rewarded him for his bravery.

Ancestry

Career as prince

In December 1634, Aurangzeb was given his first important job. He was put in charge of an army sent to Bundelkhand to deal with a ruler of Orchha, Jhujhar Singh, who had attacked another area without permission. Aurangzeb stayed back and let his generals lead the fight. The campaign was successful, and Singh lost his power.

Aurangzeb was made the leader of the southern parts of the empire in 1636. He helped bring an end to a rival kingdom and managed many areas, including Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. He also married several times during this time. In 1644, he visited his sister in Agra who had been badly hurt in an accident. This led to him being dismissed from his position as leader of the southern areas.

Later, he was made the leader of Gujarat. His time there was peaceful but had some disagreements. He then moved to lead areas near Balkh and Badakhshan, where he faced tough enemies but could not achieve much. He was later made leader of Multan and Sindh, but his efforts to take back an important city failed due to supply problems and poor equipment.

In 1653, Aurangzeb became leader of the southern areas again. He worked to improve the economy by organizing land surveys and offering help to farmers. He also planned to take more land by attacking nearby kingdoms but felt frustrated when his father chose not to push for full victory.

War of succession

Main article: Mughal war of succession (1658–1659)

The four sons of Shah Jahan were each in charge of different parts of the empire during their father's rule. The oldest son, Dara Shikoh, was Shah Jahan's favorite. This made the younger sons unhappy, and they tried to form alliances against Dara. There was no fixed rule that the oldest son would become the next ruler. Instead, the sons often fought among themselves to take control.

The main fight for power was between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb. While all four sons were capable in their roles, most important people and officials supported either Dara or Aurangzeb. Although there were some differences in their beliefs—Dara was more open-minded while Aurangzeb was more traditional—most decisions were based on who could gain the most support from military leaders and soldiers, not just ideas.

When Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, rumors spread that he had died. This caused worry among his sons. Shah Shuja, who ruled Bengal, declared himself king and moved toward Agra with his army. Aurangzeb and another brother, Murad, also claimed control over their areas. Eventually, Aurangzeb defeated his brothers and took control. Dara Shikoh was captured and executed in 1659, and Aurangzeb became the new emperor. Shah Jahan was placed under care in Agra Fort but was not mistreated.

Reign

The epithet Aurangzeb means 'Ornament of the Throne'. His chosen title Alamgir translates to Conqueror of the World.

Aurangzeb's full imperial title was very long and included many honorifics. He was also known by other titles such as Caliph of The Merciful and Monarch of Islam.

Aurangzeb's government included more Hindus than previous rulers. The number of Hindu officials grew due to the inclusion of Marathas, especially during campaigns in the Deccan region. Despite this, Aurangzeb tried to reduce the number of non-Muslim nobles in his court and encouraged some high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam.

During Aurangzeb's time, the Mughal Empire was the world's largest economy, contributing nearly 25% to the world's GDP. It was also the biggest manufacturing power, surpassing even Qing China and Western Europe.

Aurangzeb followed Islamic teachings strictly. He wanted to make Islam more prominent in his rule, though not everyone agreed with his policies. He was a follower of a Muslim teacher and sought to govern based on Islamic law.

Aurangzeb removed many long-standing taxes that affected his people shortly after becoming ruler. Later, he reintroduced a military tax on non-Muslim subjects after a hundred years without it. This tax varied based on a person's social and economic status, and exemptions were common for those affected by disasters.

Aurangzeb collected revenue from 24 provinces through taxes, customs, and land taxes. His annual income was very large, more than ten times that of the king of France at the time.

Aurangzeb did not want verses from the Quran on coins because they were touched often. Instead, his coins showed the mint city and year, along with a poetic couplet.

Aurangzeb built and repaired many structures, mostly mosques, but also secular buildings like palaces and forts. He was especially dedicated to repairing existing mosques and tombs.

The textile industry grew a lot during Aurangzeb's rule. Workshops employed many artisans who made fine silks, brocades, and other luxurious fabrics. Techniques like Kalamkari, where fabrics are painted or printed, also developed during this time.

Rebellions

During Aurangzeb's rule, many groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs, Hindu Jats, Pashtuns, and Sikhs, began to challenge Mughal authority. These groups gained military skills and experience through both working with and opposing the Mughals.

In 1669, the Hindu Jats around Mathura rebelled and created their own state, but they were defeated. In 1659, Maratha leader Shivaji attacked the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan and tried to take control of areas like the Deccan, Janjira, and Surat. In 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed Shivaji's son Sambhaji, but the Marathas kept fighting.

In 1679, the Rathore clan rebelled when Aurangzeb did not allow their young prince to become king, leading to unrest among the Rajput rulers and loss of Mughal power in the region.

In 1672, the Satnami sect near Delhi took over the administration of Narnaul but were eventually defeated by Aurangzeb's forces. In 1671, the battle of Saraighat was fought against the Ahom Kingdom, where the Mughals were defeated.

Maharaja Chhatrasal, a warrior from the Bundela Rajput clan, fought against Aurangzeb and established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand, becoming the Maharaja of Panna.

Jat rebellion

In 1669, Hindu Jats began rebelling against Aurangzeb, partly because of new taxes and the destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The rebellion was led by Gokula, a rebel landholder from Tilpat. By 1670, the Mughal Army defeated 20,000 Jat rebels and took control of Tilpat. Gokula was caught and executed, but the Jats rebelled again. Raja Ram Jat, seeking revenge for his father's death, attacked Akbar's tomb and damaged the Taj Mahal. He was later captured and executed. After Aurangzeb's death, the Jats established their independent state of Bharatpur.

Mughal–Maratha Wars

In 1657, while Aurangzeb was attacking Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, Maratha warrior Shivaji used clever tactics to take control of forts. Shivaji became the leader of many Maratha clans and attacked the Adil Shahis, gaining weapons and territory. In 1659, Aurangzeb sent general Shaista Khan to recover lost forts, but Shivaji raided his palace and injured him.

Aurangzeb then sent general Raja Jai Singh to defeat the Marathas. After some battles, Shivaji agreed to meet Aurangzeb but was unhappy with how he was treated. He was detained but later escaped. Shivaji offered to submit to Aurangzeb again, but the emperor ignored him. With help from others, Shivaji eventually submitted and was given a title, though he did not get back his forts.

In 1689, Aurangzeb captured and executed Sambhaji, Shivaji's successor. Rajaram, Sambhaji's successor, and later his widow Tarabai continued to fight the Mughals. The Marathas used hit-and-run tactics, avoiding direct battles. They expanded into areas like Malwa, Hyderabad, and Southern India. Aurangzeb fought the Marathas for over two decades without a clear victory.

Ahom campaign

In 1660, Mir Jumla II, the viceroy of Bengal, was ordered to reclaim lost territories. The Mughals annexed Kuch Behar and began retaking areas in Assam. They reached Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, in 1662. The ruler had fled, and the Mughals captured many elephants, goods, and ships. Mir Jumla II died naturally on his way back to Dacca in 1663. The battle of Saraighat was the last major attempt by the Mughals to expand into Assam. Although they briefly regained Guwahati, the Ahoms took control back in 1682 and kept it until the end of their rule.

Satnami opposition

In May 1672, the Satnami sect began a rebellion in the agricultural areas near Delhi. They believed they were protected from Mughal soldiers and marched towards Delhi. Aurangzeb responded with a large army and crushed the rebellion.

Sikh opposition

The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, opposed forced religious conversions. When asked to help Kashmiri Pandits keep their faith, he challenged Aurangzeb to convert him to Islam. Aurangzeb arrested him, and after he refused to convert, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1675. In response, his son Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa in 1699, which later led to the Sikh Confederacy and the Sikh Empire.

Pashtun opposition

In 1672, a Pashtun revolt began after Mughal soldiers mistreated a woman. The Safi tribes fought back, leading to a larger rebellion. Aurangzeb used harsh tactics, including burning villages and trying to split the tribes. The revolt spread, and the Mughals lost control in the Pashtun areas. The important trade route between Attock and Kabul was closed, causing big problems. By 1674, Aurangzeb had to personally take charge. Using a mix of diplomacy, bribes, and force, the Mughals managed to partly suppress the revolt but never fully controlled the area.

Rathore rebellion

The Rathore rebellion from 1679 to 1707 began after Aurangzeb tried to control the succession of Marwar following the death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar. Aurangzeb attempted to split Marwar into two parts and offered to raise one of the princes as a Muslim in return for Jodhpur. Rajput nobles, led by Durgadas Rathore, resisted this interference, leading to a long war between the Mughals and the Rajputs of Marwar, who were supported by Mewar Rajputs. The conflict continued for almost thirty years and reached its peak after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, when the Rathores captured Jodhpur.

Death

See also: Tomb of Aurangzeb

By 1689, the Mughal Empire had grown very large, reaching 4 million square kilometres and having over 158 million people. However, this success did not last long. Historian Jos Gommans says that the peak of Aurangzeb's rule also marked the beginning of the empire's decline.

Aurangzeb built a small marble mosque called the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort in Delhi. But his many wars, especially against the Marathas, caused huge financial problems for the empire.

Even when he was very sick, Aurangzeb made sure people knew he was still alive, because if they thought he had died, there might have been a big fight over who would be the next emperor. He died at his military camp in Bhingar near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88. He had very little money with him when he died, and he asked for a simple funeral. His grave in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, shows his strong belief in his faith.

After Aurangzeb's death, weak leaders and fights among his sons weakened the Mughal Empire. His son Bahadur Shah I became emperor, but he was not a strong leader. Soon after, the Maratha Empire grew stronger and began taking control of much of the Mughal lands. Within a few decades, the Mughal Emperor had very little power outside of Delhi.

Assessments and legacy

Aurangzeb's rule has been seen in different ways by different people. Some say he was a wise and fair ruler who made the Mughal Empire very large. Others feel he was too strict and unfair, especially toward people who followed different religions. Because of these different views, Aurangzeb's time as a leader remains a complex and often debated part of history.

Aurangzeb has been important in stories and books. He appeared in a play called Aureng-zebe by John Dryden when he was still ruling. Other books about him include Alamgirnama by Mirza Mohammed Qasim, Aurangzeb Alamgir par ek nazar, a Hindi novel by Acharya Chatursen Shastri, Shahenshah by N S Inamdar, and more recent works like Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth by Audrey Truschke.

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