Battle of al-Qadisiyyah

The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah (Arabic: مَعْرَكَة ٱلْقَادِسِيَّة Maʿrakat al-Qādisīyah; Persian: نبرد قادسیه Nâbārd-e Qâdisiyeh) was a major fight that happened in November 636. It was between the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. The battle ended with a big win for the Rashidun army. This victory is very important because it was one of the key battles during the Muslim conquest of Persia and part of the bigger early Muslim conquests.

After losing at al-Qadisiyyah, the Sasanian army could not defend themselves anymore. They had to move back from all of Mesopotamia. This allowed the Rashidun army to move forward into the Persian mainland. Eventually, by the year 651, the whole Sasanian Empire was taken over.

The battle started on November 16, 636, and lasted for three days. During the fighting, the Sasanian general named Rostam Farrokhzad died, and this caused big problems for their army. After that, the Sasanian soldiers lost their positions, and the Rashidun army was able to take over the city of Ctesiphon, which was the capital of the Persian Empire for a long time.

Later, the success at al-Qadisiyyah helped the Rashidun Caliphate take over the Sasanian province of Asoristan. After this battle, there were other big fights at Jalula and Nahavand. In 2024, scientists from Durham University and the University of al-Qadisiyyah found out that the battle probably happened in an open field about 19 kilometers south of the modern city of Kufa.

Background

Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

Main article: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

When the Byzantine emperor Maurice was killed, the leader of the Sasanian Empire, Khosrow II, started a war against the Byzantine Empire. Sasanian forces took control of Syria, Egypt, and Anatolia, and even captured an important religious symbol, the True Cross.

Later, a new Byzantine emperor named Heraclius took over and began to win back the lost lands. He defeated a small Persian army and moved toward Ctesiphon.

During this time, Khosrow II was overthrown and killed by his son Kavadh II. Kavadh made peace with the Byzantines, giving back all the captured lands and the True Cross. However, Kavadh died soon after, leading to more trouble in Persia.

Sasanian Civil War of 628–632

Main article: Sasanian Interregnum

After Kavadh II's death, a struggle for power began. A young boy named Ardashir III became ruler but was killed by his general Shahrbaraz, who then took control. Shahrbaraz later died during a battle, and a woman named Boran became ruler. She tried to bring peace and order to the empire but faced many challenges.

Boran was later replaced by others, and after several years of conflict, a young boy named Yazdegerd III became emperor at the age of eight in 632. The real power, however, was held by generals who controlled the empire.

First Muslim campaign

Main article: Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia

After the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr brought Arabia under control and began campaigns against Syria and Palestine. This set the stage for future conflicts with the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, the two major powers of the time. Under Khalid ibn al-Walid, the Muslim forces won several important battles, including the Battle of Chains, the Battle of River, the Battle of Walaja, and the Battle of Ullais. By the end of 633, the city of Al-Hirah had fallen, and other cities like Al-Anbar and Ein ul Tamr were captured.

When Umar ibn al-Khattāb became the new leader, he sent more soldiers to support the Muslim forces in Iraq. After some setbacks, including the Battle of the Bridge, the Muslims regrouped and prepared for future battles. Meanwhile, the Persian emperor Yazdegerd III was planning a large attack to reclaim Iraq. However, the Muslim forces, led by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, would later face the Persian army in a major battle that changed the course of history.

Second Muslim campaign

Rashidun preparations

Caliph Umar gathered new armies from all over Arabia to attack Iraq again. He chose Sa'd ibn Abī Waqqās, a respected leader from the Quraysh tribe, to lead this army. In May 636, Sa'd moved with 4,000 men to take command of the Muslim forces and head to Iraq. Because Sa'd was new to leading battles, Umar advised him to ask experienced commanders for help when needed. Umar told Sa'd to stop at al-Qadisiyyah, a small town about 30 miles from Kufah.

Umar gave orders to his army from far away and made important decisions for them. To get more soldiers, Umar allowed tribes that had previously opposed the Muslim rule to join the army. The army was made up of volunteers from all over Arabia, not professional soldiers. After winning a big battle against the Byzantine army at Yarmouk, Umar sent 5,000 experienced soldiers to join the fight at Qadisiyyah. Their arrival was very important and lifted the spirits of the Muslim army. The battle at Qadisiyyah was mostly between the leaders Umar and Rostam, rather than Sa'd and Rostam. The Sasanian army also had many new soldiers because their regular forces had been defeated in earlier battles at Walaja and Ullais.

Al-Qadisiyyah was a small town near the river Ateeq, a branch of the Euphrates river. Al-Hira, an old capital city, was about thirty miles to the west. Today, al-Qadisiyyah is located southwest of al-Hillah and Kufah in Iraq. Researchers from universities in England and Iraq studied old maps and texts to find the exact place where the battle happened.

Troop strength and deployment

Today, experts think both the Sasanian and Muslim armies had around 30,000 soldiers each after the Muslims got extra soldiers from Syria. Many historians believe the Sasanian army was actually larger than the Muslim army.

Sasanian army

The Persian army arrived at Qadisiyyah in July 636 and set up strong camps on the east side of the Ateeq river. There was one bridge across the river to reach their main camps, though they also had boats.

The Sasanian army had about 60,000 soldiers divided into three groups: infantry, heavy cavalry, and elephant soldiers. The elephant soldiers were also called the Indian corps because the elephants came from Persian areas in India. On November 16, 636, the Sasanian army moved to the west side of the Ateeq river. Rostam arranged his 45,000 infantry soldiers into four groups, each about 150 meters apart. He placed 15,000 cavalry soldiers into four groups to support attacks. There were about 33 elephants, with eight in each of the four army groups. The battle field was about 4 km long. Hormuzan led the right wing, Jalinus the right centre, Piruzan the rear guard, and Mihran the left wing. Rostam watched from a shaded seat near the river, where he could see the whole battlefield. Next to him was the Derafsh-e-Kāveyān, the special flag of the Sasanian army. Rostam also set up men along the road to the Sasanian capital, Ctesiphon, to send messages.

Rashidun army

In July 636, the main Muslim army marched to Qadisiyyah from Sharaf. After setting up camp and organizing defenses, Sa'd sent groups to raid areas inside Suwad. Sa'd kept in touch with Caliph Umar, sending him reports about the land where the Muslims had camped and the area between Qadisiyyah, Madinah, and where the Persian forces were gathered.

The Muslim army had about 30,000 soldiers, including 7,000 cavalry. After getting extra soldiers from Syria and local Arab allies, their numbers grew to 36,000. Sa'd became ill with sciatica and had boils on his body, so he directed the battle from an old palace in Qadisiyyah where he could see the battlefield. He chose Khalid ibn Urfuta as his deputy, who passed Sa'd's orders to the soldiers. The Muslim infantry was split into four groups, each with its own group of cavalry soldiers kept at the back for counterattacks. The soldiers were grouped by their tribes so they fought alongside people they knew well.

The Muslim soldiers wore gilded helmets and chain mail to protect their faces, necks, and cheeks. They also wore heavy leather sandals and armor made of hardened leather or overlapping small pieces. They carried large wooden or wickerwork shields and long spears — the infantry spears were about 2.5 meters long, while the cavalry spears could be up to 5.5 meters long.

Their swords looked similar to Roman gladius swords and Sasanian long swords, hanging from a belt around their waist. They used bows that were about two meters long when not stretched, with a range of about 150 meters. The Muslim archers were very good at targeting enemy cavalry. The Muslim troops fighting against the Sasanian Persians had lighter armor than the troops who fought against the Byzantine army.

Battle

The armies of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire met at al-Qadisiyyah in November 636. For three months, leaders from both sides tried to negotiate, but these talks failed. The fighting began on November 16 and lasted for several days.

Both sides fought fiercely, with many soldiers losing their lives. The battle included intense fighting, with special warriors from both armies dueling to lower the other side’s spirit. Elephants were used by the Sasanian forces, causing fear among the Muslim soldiers. Eventually, the Muslims found ways to defend against the elephants.

On the final day, the Sasanian general Rostam was killed, leading to the collapse of the Sasanian forces. The Muslims won the battle, marking a major victory in their campaign against the Sasanian Empire.

Aftermath

After this important battle, the Arab Muslim fighters won many valuable prizes, including a famous royal flag called the Derafsh-e-Kāveyān, which means the 'flag of Kāveh'. The jewel from the flag was cut into pieces and sold in Medina. These fighters became known as 'Ahl al-Qādisiyyah' and were highly respected by later Arab settlers in Kufa, an important town in Iraq.

Following the battle, a leader named Sa'd sent a report to Umar about the victory. Even though this battle weakened Sasanian rule in Iraq, it did not end their control of Mesopotamia. Since the Sasanians still held their capital city, Ctesiphon, there was a risk they might try to take back what they had lost. Because of this, Umar instructed the Muslim forces to move forward and capture Ctesiphon. After a two-month siege, the city was taken in March 637. The Muslim army continued to conquer areas up to Khuzistan, though their progress was slowed by a severe drought in Arabia in 638 and a disease in southern Mesopotamia and the Levant in 639.

Later, the Persian emperor Yazdgerd III was killed in 651, marking the end of the Sasanian Empire.