Concentrated animal feeding operation

In animal husbandry, a concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) is a type of farm where animals are kept in a small space for most of the year. The United States Department of Agriculture says a CAFO must have more than 1,000 animal units. An animal unit is like 1,000 pounds of living animals. This can mean 700 dairy cows, 1,000 meat cows, or many other numbers of different animals.

CAFOs have rules about how they handle animal waste to keep the environment safe. In 2012, there were about 212,000 places where animals are raised in the United States, and about 19,500 of these were CAFOs.

Over time, most animal farming has moved to CAFOs. In the United States, by the mid-2000s, most chickens, cows, and pigs were raised in these concentrated farms. For example, in 1966 it took one million farms to raise 57 million pigs, but by 2001, only 80,000 farms were needed for the same number of pigs.

Definition

In the United States, there are many places where animals are kept and fed. Some of these places are called concentrated animal feeding operations, or CAFOs. These are places where more than 1,000 animals live in a small area for most of the year.

The Environmental Protection Agency sorts these places into three sizes: large, medium, and small. The size depends on how many animals are kept there and what kind of animals they are. For example, a large CAFO might have 1,000 or more cattle, while a medium CAFO might have between 300 and 999 cattle. Small CAFOs have 300 or fewer cattle.

The table below shows some examples of how many animals different types of CAFOs can have:

The way CAFOs are sorted helps decide if they need to follow certain rules to keep water clean. Large CAFOs always need to follow these rules. Medium CAFOs need to follow rules only if they meet certain conditions. Small CAFOs usually don’t need to follow these rules unless there is a problem with waste going into water.

Key issues

Environmental impact

CAFOs, or concentrated animal feeding operations, create large amounts of animal waste. This waste can harm the environment if not managed properly. It can pollute water and hurt fish and other wildlife. The waste also can affect air quality, making it hard to breathe for people and animals nearby.

Water quality

Animal waste from CAFOs can get into rivers, lakes, and groundwater. This waste includes harmful materials like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can make water unsafe for animals and people. In some places, this waste has caused serious problems, like fish dying in rivers and water becoming unsafe to drink.

Air quality

CAFOs can also pollute the air. They release gases that can irritate the lungs and eyes. This can make people sick, especially those who live close to these farms. The air around CAFOs can also contain harmful bacteria, which can spread diseases.

Economic impact

Increased role in the market

CAFOs have become very important in farming. They help produce large amounts of meat, milk, and eggs at lower prices. This has changed farming in the United States, with fewer small farms and more large ones. These big farms can produce more food more efficiently, but they also face criticism for how they affect smaller farmers and the environment.

Negative production externalities

The cost of meat and other animal products does not include the harm these farms can do to the environment. This harm can cost a lot of money, but it is not paid by the companies that run CAFOs. This can make it hard for smaller farms to compete, and it can also lower property values near these farms.

Other economic criticisms

Some people say that CAFOs get special benefits, like lower taxes, which help them stay in business. They also worry that these farms use too many antibiotics, which can be harmful to people and animals.

Public health concerns

The waste from CAFOs can pollute water and air, which can make people sick. This waste can cause problems like stomach illnesses, skin irritation, and breathing difficulties. It can also spread harmful bacteria, making it harder to treat infections.

Air pollution from CAFOs can cause health problems like asthma and breathing issues. Workers in these farms and people who live nearby are especially at risk. Studies have shown higher rates of certain illnesses in areas with many CAFOs.

Negative effects on minority populations

People with lower incomes and from minority groups often live closer to CAFOs. These communities suffer more from the pollution and waste because they have fewer resources to move away or fight against new farms. This can make their health and quality of life worse.

Animal health and welfare concerns

Some people worry about how animals are treated in CAFOs. They believe the conditions can be very hard on the animals, with little space and poor living conditions. There have been laws passed to improve conditions for some animals, but concerns about animal welfare continue.

Regulation under the Clean Water Act

Basic structure of CAFO regulations under the CWA

The rules for managing large farms that keep many animals close together are based on the Clean Water Act (CWA). This law stops pollution from going into rivers, lakes, and other water areas unless the farm has special permission called a permit. These farms are listed as places that can cause pollution. Without a permit, any pollution from these farms breaks the law.

Having a permit helps farm owners because it tells them what they can and cannot do. The permit also lets farms follow special rules during unexpected weather or natural disasters.

The government sets the most pollution allowed for farms like these. These rules are based on using certain technologies, but farms can choose other ways to meet the rules.

The government puts the smallest amount of pollution allowed into each permit for these farms. These rules can include numbers for how much pollution can be released and other ways to manage waste.

History of regulations

The big rules for these farms started in the 1970s and again in the 2000s. The government first made rules for these farms in 1976. In 2003, the rules were updated, but a court changed some parts in 2005. The government then made new rules in 2008.

The big water pollution law was passed in 1972. It was one of the first laws to help keep water clean. In 1970, a leader created a new group to watch over all pollution, including water. In 1972, the law clearly said these farms must have permits to release water from their land.

In the 1970s, the government started making rules for these farms after the 1972 law. In 1974, rules were made for farms with lots of animals. In 1976, all these farms had to be checked and follow rules if they met certain sizes. That year, special rules for these farms were made.

Before 1976, size was the main way to decide if a farm was a problem. But after 1976, some farms could still be ruled as problems even if they were smaller if they hurt water a lot. Some farms did not need permits if they only released water during very rare big storms or if they spread waste on land for plants.

In the 1990s, groups sued the government saying the rules were not good enough. The government was told to update its rules, which led to new rules in 2003. In 1995, the government gave more information to help people understand the rules. In 1998, leaders asked groups to work together to improve water quality. In 1999, they made a plan with six important jobs for farms to manage waste.

EPA final rule (2003)

In 2003, the government updated old rules to use new technology and to stop more pollution. This was also because a court told them to in 1991. The new rules started on April 14, 2003. The government let states update their rules by February 2005.

The 2003 rules made new ways for farms to manage waste in places where animals are kept and where waste is put on land. The rules also said farms must tell the government each year how they are doing and make plans to manage waste. The rules also said all these farms must get permits, not just ones that already pollute water.

EPA final rule (2008)

The government made new rules on November 20, 2008, to follow what a court said in 2005. The new rules changed parts of the 2003 rules.

The government changed the rule about needing a permit. Now, only farms that actually release pollution need a permit. The government also changed rules about plans for managing waste so that the rules are part of the permit. The government also said that farms must keep records of how they use waste correctly.

The government also talked about how much waste can be put on land each year. There are two ways to figure this out. One way uses numbers, and the other tells how to figure it out. The government thinks the second way is easier for farm owners to change what they do without asking for new permits every time.

Government assistance for compliance

The government helps farm owners follow the rules. The government gives money to help farms stop pollution. Farms can get free plans to help manage waste. A university made a free tool to help farms and the government with these plans. The government also offers many services to help farms manage waste.

Debate over EPA policy

Some groups think the rules are not strong enough. They worry that some places do not follow the rules well, and accidents can happen. They want rules to cover more farms and to make farms get permits even if they might not pollute yet. They also want rules to make sure companies that own the animals are responsible for waste. They think old ways of handling waste are dangerous and want new ways. They also think the rules should stop air pollution from these farms.

Other groups think the rules are too strict. They believe farms take care of their land and water because it is important to them. They think the government should not control water from land and that volunteer programs are enough.

States' role and authority

The federal government sets national rules for the environment, while state governments handle specific issues. This means states are responsible for preventing and reducing pollution.

States that are allowed to issue permits directly manage rules for certain farms. Because of this, the rules for these farms can be different in each state. For water pollution, the federal government sets basic standards, and states create their own rules that must be at least as strict. These rules apply to all waterways, whether they are used for recreation or to support aquatic life. Some areas have even stricter rules to protect special environments like parks.

State versus federal permit issuance

Federal law requires certain farms to get permits before releasing wastewater. Whether a state or the EPA issues these permits depends on the state. As of 2018, 47 states were allowed to issue these permits themselves, but their rules had to meet federal standards. In other states, the EPA issues the permits.

Permitting process

How permits are issued depends on the state's rules and agencies. Here are two examples:

Authorized state case study: Arizona

Arizona has a general permitting process. Farms must get two permits: an Arizona Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (AZPDES) Permit and an Aquifer Protection Permit. The Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) manages these permits.

For the Aquifer Protection Permit, farms are allowed if they follow the state's best practices. ADEQ checks compliance through inspections. If a farm breaks the rules, ADEQ can give warnings or take legal action. For the AZPDES permit, farms must submit a Notice of Intent and a Nutrient Management Plan to ADEQ.

Even in states that issue their own permits, the EPA can step in if there is a complaint. For example, in 2008, a group in Illinois complained about how the state was handling permits. The EPA investigated and gave recommendations to the state.

Unauthorized state case study: Massachusetts

In states that do not issue permits themselves, the EPA handles issuing permits. In Massachusetts, farms contact an EPA regional office. The state's Department of Agricultural Resources (MDAR) works with the EPA but mainly provides education. MDAR helps farm operators understand the rules, offers advice on best practices, and gives technical support.

Some unauthorized states have their own extra rules. For example, New Mexico requires certain farms to get a Groundwater Permit if their waste could affect groundwater. The EPA is not involved in issuing this permit. Massachusetts, however, does not have additional state permit requirements.

Zoning ordinances

State planning laws and local zoning ordinances help decide how land can be used. Many states have laws that let farms, including places where lots of animals are kept, avoid these land use rules. These laws are called "right to farm" statutes and they try to stop farms from being troubled by their neighbors. These laws started in the 1950s and grew in the 1970s when states wanted to protect rural farmland from becoming cities.

Forty-three states have some rules to protect farms from being troubled. Some states, like Iowa, Oklahoma, Wyoming, Tennessee, and Kansas, have extra rules to protect places where many animals are kept. These laws can be different in each state. Some states need farms to be in special areas to get protection, while others do not.

People who don’t like these farms have taken these laws to court, and it’s not always clear if they are fair. For example, in 1998, the Iowa Supreme Court said one of Iowa’s laws was not fair because it took away rights from people living near farms without paying them.

Regulation under the Clean Air Act

CAFOs might be regulated under the Clean Air Act, but their emissions usually stay below the set limits. The rules for measuring these emissions are not very clear, which makes things difficult for both regulators and farmers.

In January 2005, the EPA and some farmers made an agreement. Farmers paid a fine for past issues and agreed to let their farms be checked as part of a study on air pollution from farming. The results of this study were planned to come out in 2011.

Some environmental groups asked the EPA on April 6, 2011, to treat a certain gas, called ammonia, as a type of pollution that needs strict limits. They said that farms like CAFOs are big sources of ammonia, making up about 80 percent of all of it in the country. If the EPA agrees, these farms would need to follow more rules to control their emissions.