Dhyana in Buddhism

In the oldest texts of Buddhism, dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान) or jhāna (Pāli) is a way to train the mind, often called meditation. It helps people stop reacting automatically to what they see, hear, or feel. By practicing dhyāna, people can let go of harmful thoughts and feelings, reaching a calm and clear state of mind. This practice may have been a central part of early Buddhism, together with other methods that help develop deep awareness and freedom from strong emotions.

Later traditions, such as Theravāda, see dhyāna as a state where the mind focuses strongly on one thing, like the breath, and pays less attention to what is happening around it. However, some modern teachers and movements, like the Vipassana movement, think this focused state is not needed for the first step toward understanding life's changes. Recently, many scholars and practitioners have begun to look back at the oldest teachings to find a fuller way to practice dhyāna.

In traditions such as Chan and Zen, which are Chinese and Japanese ways of practicing dhyāna, paying attention to the breath (called anapanasati) is very important. This method has been passed down through generations and is based on old meditation techniques from the time after the birth of Jesus.

Etymology

The word dhyāna in Sanskrit and jhana in Pali comes from an ancient root meaning "to see" or "to show". In early texts like the Vedas, it was linked to imagination and wisdom, especially with the goddess Saraswati. Over time, it came to mean "to contemplate" or "to meditate".

According to the writer Buddhaghosa, jhana means "to think or meditate", and its purpose is to clear the mind of distractions. It is often called meditation, which is part of training the mind, known as bhāvanā. The practice also appeared in Zoroastrianism in Persia, showing shared roots across cultures.

The jhāna/dhyana-stages

The Pāḷi Canon talks about four stages of deep thinking called rūpa jhāna. There are also four other ways to think called arūpa.

Meditation is part of a group of practices that help train the mind. These include learning good habits, staying aware of your thoughts, and calming your mind. All these steps help prepare the mind for deep thinking, making it easier to stay calm and aware.

Buddha depicted in dhyāna, Amaravati, India

In old Buddhist writings, deep thinking starts when a person sits quietly and focuses. Often, they pay attention to their breathing. The writings describe four levels of this deep thinking. Each level helps a person let go of unwanted thoughts and feelings, leading to a balanced and watchful mind.

The four levels are:

The first level brings a feeling of joy and comfort by letting go of bad thoughts and desires.
The second level makes the mind quiet and focused without many thoughts.
The third level is about staying calm and aware, feeling comfort in the body.
The fourth level is about feeling balanced, without too much comfort or discomfort.

There are also four special ways of thinking that are not tied to physical things. These are about thinking about endless space, endless awareness, nothingness, and a state between knowing and not knowing.

Other practices that help with meditation include thinking about the body, the elements it is made from, and being aware of the breath. These practices are part of early Buddhist teachings and are linked to deep thinking and waking up to truth.

Early Buddhism

Main articles: Enlightenment in Buddhism and Nirvana

The Buddhist tradition talks about two ways to reach understanding. One way is to gain insight, which helps a person wake up to truth. Another way uses a special kind of deep, quiet thinking called jhāna. Sometimes, people thought that just doing jhāna was enough, but other texts say it needs to be used with insight.

Origins of the jhāna/dhyāna-stages

Textual accounts

The Mahasaccaka Sutta tells the story of the Buddha’s waking up. Before he found his own way, he tried learning two kinds of quiet thinking from two teachers. These didn’t help him fully wake up, so he tried very hard practices, but those didn’t work either. Then, the Buddha remembered a quiet moment he had as a child under a tree. He realized this kind of quiet thinking could be a path to waking up.

Possible Buddhist transformation of yogic practices

Around the time of the Buddha, many people practiced quiet thinking in different ways. Some think the Buddha added his own ideas to these old practices, making them fit better with his teachings. Others believe he learned from teachers and then changed their ways to help people wake up.

Five possibilities regarding jhāna and liberation

Different texts describe several ways to find freedom:

Learning the four stages of jhāna, and then gaining insight.
Learning the four stages of jhāna and the four formless stages, and then gaining insight.
Gaining insight on its own is enough.
The four stages of jhāna themselves were the main practice in early Buddhism.
Finding freedom happens in a special deep quiet state.

Rūpa-jhānas followed by liberating insight

Main articles: Vipassanā and Sampajañña

In one tradition, people use jhāna to calm the mind and get ready to learn about how things really are. They learn that even these quiet states don’t last forever.

Rūpa-jhānas and arūpa-āyatanas, followed by liberating insight

Some scholars think this idea came later, because the formless stages are similar to older practices not from Buddhism.

Insight alone suffices

Later thinkers began to say that insight alone was the most important thing. This might have been because other ways of quiet thinking were hard, or because people began to focus more on understanding.

Jhāna itself is liberating

Some believe that the practice of jhāna itself was the main way to find freedom in the earliest Buddhism.

Liberation in nirodha-samāpatti

Some texts say that after reaching very deep quiet states, a person finds freedom. In one story, the Buddha’s friend reached this state and woke up completely.

Theravada

Buddha in Dhyana, which in this context means: The meditative training stage on the path to Samadhi.

The Theravada tradition describes jhāna as a way to develop concentration in meditation. It is linked to five mental factors that help overcome common distractions. These factors include applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, pleasure, and one-pointedness, each helping to counter specific hindrances like laziness, doubt, anger, restlessness, and desire.

In the Visuddhimagga, a key Theravada text, jhāna is seen as a form of deep concentration. This idea influenced modern meditation techniques. Some scholars and practitioners debate whether jhāna is necessary for enlightenment. Some believe that insight and wisdom are developed while in jhāna, while others think concentration alone is not enough. These discussions continue among both scholars and meditation teachers.

In Mahāyāna traditions

Mahāyāna Buddhism has many different schools, each with its own ways of practicing meditation. These methods help people focus their minds and reach a deeper understanding, with the ultimate goal of enlightenment.

Dhyana as open awareness

Some traditions, like Dzogchen, Mahamudra, and Chan, see dhyana as a way to be fully aware of both the body and mind. This helps people go beyond just focusing on one thing or thinking about insights.

Chan Buddhism

Bodhisattva seated in meditation. Afghanistan, 2nd century CE.

In Chan Buddhism, practices like dhyana and being mindful of the breath are very important. They help people make progress on their spiritual journey and truly understand the teachings.

Origins

In China, the word dhyāna was translated as Chinese: 禪那; pinyin: chánnà, and later shortened to just pinyin: chán. This word and the practice of meditation came to China through translations by An Shigao and Kumārajīva, who worked with early meditation texts.

Mindfulness

Observing the breath

Venerable Hsuan Hua meditating in the Lotus Position. Hong Kong, 1953

During meditation, people often sit in special positions like the lotus position or use yoga postures. They focus on their breath or bring their attention to a point below the navel. This is called sitting dhyana, or zuòChan in Chinese, zazen in Japanese.

Observing the mind

In some schools of Zen, like Sōtō, people practice meditation without focusing on any object. They let thoughts come and go without trying to control them.

Insight

Pointing to the nature of the mind

Early Chan teachers didn’t follow strict rules for meditation. Instead, they used simple ways to help people see the true nature of their minds, known as Buddha-nature.

Kōan practice

Main article: Kōan

Later, some teachers used kōans, which are short stories or questions, to help students understand deeper truths. These are especially used in the Rinzai school of Zen. Students work with a teacher to explore these stories and show their understanding.

Vajrayāna

Some Tibetan Buddhist teachers say that modern practitioners don’t often focus on deep levels of concentration. However, older Tibetan teachers wrote a lot about these practices and thought they were very important.