Duchy of Croatia

The Duchy of Croatia was a medieval state formed by the White Croats who moved into the area of the former Roman province of Dalmatia around the 7th century AD. Over time, the Duchy had several important centers, including Klis, Solin, Knin, Bijaći, and Nin. It covered the coastal areas of what is now Croatia, except for Istria, and also included much of the mountainous inland region.

The Croats settled in Dalmatia after defeating the Pannonian Avars, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius I. The Duchy often found itself caught between powerful neighbours, especially the Byzantine Empire and the Carolingian Empire, who both wanted control of the area. In the 9th century, Croatia began to rival Venice, and this competition lasted for many years. Croatia also faced battles with the Bulgarian Empire and the Arabs, while trying to gain control of important coastal cities that were under Byzantine rule.

Sometimes, Croatia was under the control of the Franks or the Byzantines, but other times it was independent. In 879, Duke Branimir was recognized as an independent ruler by Pope John VIII. From 845 to 1091, the Duchy was ruled by the Trpimirović and Domagojević dynasties. Around 925, under the leadership of Tomislav, Croatia grew strong enough to become a kingdom.

Nomenclature

"Dalmatian Croatia" (Dalmatinska Hrvatska) and "Littoral Croatia" (Primorska Hrvatska) are names historians use today for the Duchy. Sometimes it is called the "Principality of Croatia." The earliest known name for the Duchy was "Land of the Croats" (Latin: regnum Croatorum) in the year 852. At this time, Croatia was not yet a kingdom, and the word regnum simply meant a country.

In old records from the Byzantine Empire, the area was often just called "Croatia" (Greek: Χρωβατία). The first known duke, Borna, was called "Duke of Dalmatia" and later "Duke of Dalmatia and Liburnia." The Croatian name appears in old documents from Croatian dukes in the 9th century. Trpimir I was called "Duke of the Croats" in a Latin document from 852, and Branimir was also called "Duke of the Croats" on an inscription near Benkovac.

Geography

The Duchy of Croatia lay near the Adriatic coast, within the area once ruled by the Romans as Dalmatia. It stretched from the eastern coast inland to parts of western Herzegovina and Bosnia, reaching into regions like Lika, Gacka, and Krbava. To the northwest, it extended to Vinodol and Labin in the Croatian Littoral.

Some coastal cities such as Split, Zadar, Kotor, and Dubrovnik were ruled by the Byzantines, along with islands like Hvar and Krk. Croatia's southern border touched the land of the Narentines, which included islands such as Brač, Korčula, Mljet, Vis, and Lastovo. Nearby areas included Zahumlje, Travunia, and Dioclea to the south, and the Duchy of Lower Pannonia to the north. The Croatian dukes did not have one fixed capital; they lived in different places such as Klis, Solin, Knin, Biaći, and Nin.

History

Background

The Roman provinces and native peoples in Southeastern Europe, including the area of Dalmatia, were attacked by the Huns and Goths. Later, the Ostrogoths formed their own kingdom there. Archaeological finds show that groups like the Ostrogoths and Gepids lived in Northern Dalmatia and Pannonia.

The Byzantine Empire tried to take back these lands, but new groups of early Slavs moved in during the mid-6th century. The Avars, a group of nomads, led many Slavic tribes and took control of the area. Around 614, they destroyed the main city of the Dalmatia province, Salona, and kept control of the region.

According to a historical text called De Administrando Imperio, the White Croats were either invited into Dalmatia by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius after defeating the Avars, or they moved in on their own from Pannonia Savia. They were led by five brothers and two sisters, and their first leader was the father of Porga. The Croats started to become Christian during the time of Porga.

By the early 9th century, the Croats had become a political group led by a duke. Their land was in the areas around the rivers Cetina, Krka, and Zrmanja, and they were divided into 11 counties.

Archaeology

Archaeological evidence shows that new Slavic-Croatian people arrived in the 7th century. We can see this from burial practices, pottery, and other artifacts that are different from Roman and Christian styles. Early Croats also built burial chambers in wooden or stone structures, a tradition from their original homeland.

Christian practices started to spread more in the 8th century. Burials changed over time from cremation to row cemeteries with both pagan and Christian practices, and later to burials next to churches.

In the Pannonian part of Croatia, we find items from the Avars, while in the Littoral part, there are very few Avar items. In Dalmatia, Avar items were likely taken as war booty.

Croats in the late 8th and 9th centuries had many swords of Carolingian-Viking style and other war equipment. These items show connections with the Frankish-Avar Wars and the Central-European and Carolingian world. Recent findings near Glina show items belonging to a local duke, similar to those found in other parts of Croatia.

Female jewelry included earrings made of precious metals, showing the skill of Byzantine goldsmiths. Simpler jewelry made of silver and bronze was also common. Containers made of antlers with special designs were found in Western Pannonia. These items disappeared with the introduction of Christian burials in the mid-9th century.

From the mid-9th century, a distinct Croatian style of jewelry developed, especially large bead-shaped earrings. Workshops were likely in Solin, Knin, and Sisak. Archaeologists recognize two cultural variants from this time: the Croatian-Dalmatian/Littoral culture and the Pannonian-Bijelo Brdo culture.

Frankish vassalage

The Franks took control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the late 8th and early 9th centuries. In 788, Charlemagne conquered Lombardy and then Istria. Duke Vojnomir of Pannonia accepted Frankish rule, and the Franks placed his land under the March of Friuli. In 799, the Franks were defeated by Eric of Friuli in the Battle of Trsat in Liburnia, but by 803, Frankish rule was recognized in most of northern Dalmatia.

From around 810, Borna ruled most of northern Dalmatia as a vassal of the Carolingian Empire. His rule included conflicts with Ljudevit Posavski, who rebelled against the Franks and defeated Borna in the Battle of Kupa in 819. After Borna's death in 821, he was succeeded by his nephew Vladislav and uncle Ljudemisl.

Between East and West

The Duchy of Croatia was between two major powers: the Eastern Roman Empire, which controlled the Dalmatian cities and wanted to rule all of Dalmatia, and the Franks, who wanted to control the northern and northwestern lands. Byzantine influence affected Croatian law and trade with coastal cities.

In the 9th century, the Croats began building a navy. Along with the Narentines, who were still pagan and lived near the Neretva river mouth, they made travel in the Adriatic Sea dangerous for Venice. In 839, the Venetians attacked the eastern Adriatic coast, including Croatia, and made peace with their ruler Mislav, who ruled from Klis near Split. However, peace did not last, and the Venetians were later defeated by the Narentines.

Duke Mislav was succeeded around 845 by Trpimir I, who continued to be a vassal of the Frankish king Lothair I but strengthened his rule in Croatia. Arab attacks weakened the Byzantine Empire and Venice, which helped Trpimir attack Byzantine coastal cities in 846 and defend against a Bulgarian invasion between 854 and 860. Trpimir built a church and the first Benedictine monastery in Croatia near Klis.

In 864, Duke Domagoj took power and increased piracy in the Adriatic, attacking Christian sailors and causing the Pope to ask him to stop. Domagoj also fought wars with the Arabs, Venetians, and Franks. After Domagoj's death in 876, Zdeslav returned from exile and restored peace with Venice in 878.

Independent realm

Duke Zdeslav's rule ended in 879 when Branimir killed him and took the throne. Branimir supported Rome and received papal recognition for the Duchy as a state free from Frankish control.

Muncimir, the youngest son of Trpimir, became duke after Branimir's death around 892. During his rule, the Hungarians entered the Carpathian Basin and threatened Croatia after defeating Duke Braslav from the Duchy of Pannonia.

Muncimir ruled until about 910 when he was succeeded by Tomislav, the last duke and first king of Croatia. In 912, a Venetian ambassador passed through Croatian territory on his way to Bulgaria, suggesting Croatia bordered Bulgaria at the time. Croatia fought battles with the Magyars in the early 10th century.

During the war between Byzantium and Bulgaria, the Byzantines made an alliance with Croatia around 923. In 924, the Bulgarians deposed a leader in Serbia, who fled to Croatia. In 926, Bulgarian troops invaded Croatia but were defeated in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands. In 927, Pope John X sent legates to make peace between the Croats and Bulgarians.

Croatia became a kingdom during these years. Duke Tomislav was the first ruler honored with the title of king by the Papal chancellery, though the exact details of his coronation are unknown. Later documents and inscriptions confirm that his successors called themselves kings.