Early modern Europe

Early modern Europe, also called the post-medieval period, was a time in European history from the mid-1400s to the late 1700s. This era began with big changes like the invention of moveable type printing and ended around the time of the French Revolution or the start of the Industrial Revolution.

During this time, important events happened, such as the first circumnavigation of the Earth and European colonization of the Americas. New discoveries connected Europe with the Americas, South and East Asia. The Protestant Reformation brought new ideas that changed the religious world, leading to conflicts like the Thirty Years' War.

The 17th century saw the start of modern science and quick technological progress. New ways of governing and law courts appeared, and countries began to form as nation states. Economic changes led to the growth of capitalist economies and the spread of ideas around the world, marking the start of globalization.

Periodization

The early modern period in Europe was a time of big changes. It included the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment. During this time, science and technology grew quickly. Governments became less controlled by religious leaders, and people started to think of themselves as part of a country instead of just a religion or a local group.

The early modern period began around the late 1400s or early 1500s. Important events include the invention of movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg, the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans, and Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas in 1492. The period ended around the late 1700s, either with the start of the Industrial Revolution or the French Revolution in 1789.

Printing Revolution

Further information: Printing press § Circulation of information and ideas

Starting from one print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press quickly spread to about 270 cities across Europe. By the end of the 15th century, it had produced over 20 million books. This made learning easier because people could now read and share important ideas from long ago. Printing changed how people shared knowledge, moving away from handwritten books to printed ones that could be read by many.

Age of Discovery

Further information: Age of Discovery, New World § Mundus Novus, and Waldseemüller map

The Age of Discovery was a time from the 1500s to the 1600s when people from European countries traveled far across the oceans. They discovered new lands, made maps, and connected different parts of the world through trade. Famous explorers like the Spaniards and Portuguese were joined later by the English, French, and Dutch.

One amazing journey was the Magellan–Elcano expedition from 1519 to 1522, which was the first to sail all the way around the world. This helped people understand how big the Earth really is. During this time, many new plants, animals, and ideas were shared between Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Unfortunately, some groups of people were treated unfairly, and many lost their homes or families. This period changed the world forever and helped create the global community we know today.

Reformation

Main article: Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a big change that started in the Catholic Church. It began in 1517 when Martin Luther shared his ideas in a document called the 95 Theses. This led to new types of Christian churches, such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and others.

The changes affected many parts of Europe. In England, the church separated from the Catholic Church under Henry VIII. In other places, like Northern Europe, many people turned to the new Protestant ideas, while Southern Europe stayed mostly Catholic. The Reformation brought many new ideas and changes in how people thought about their faith.

Scientific Revolution

Main article: Scientific Revolution

In the early 1600s, scientist Galileo Galilei used a telescope to make important discoveries about space. These observations built on the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus, who had suggested that Earth moves around the Sun. Galileo's work challenged old beliefs about how the universe worked, which had been based on ideas from ancient Greek thinkers like Aristotelian physics mixed with Christian teachings.

This period, called the Scientific Revolution, changed how people thought about nature and science. It moved away from old ways of understanding the world that were closely tied to religion. Instead, it focused on new ways of learning through observation, math, and testing ideas with evidence. This new approach helped science become more independent and powerful.

Age of Enlightenment

Main article: Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was an important time in the 18th century for European ideas and thinking. People started to use reason and logic to understand the world better. They believed that using their minds could help improve life and move away from old, unfair traditions.

This way of thinking helped shape big events like the American and French Revolutions, as well as movements for freedom in Latin America. It also influenced new ideas about society, such as fairness and sharing resources. This period matched beautiful music from the baroque and classical styles, and art that looked back to older, grand designs.

Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance

The term "early modern" is sometimes used to mean the same as the Renaissance, though they are not exactly the same. The Renaissance describes a time of many important cultural changes that happened over hundreds of years in many parts of Europe, especially in central and northern Italy. It marks the shift from the late Medieval times to the early modern period.

"Early modern" usually refers to Europe and its influence beyond Europe, but it can also describe periods in other places, like the Ottoman Empire and the Edo period in Japan, which lasted from 1590 to 1868.

Diplomacy and warfare

The 17th century was a time of frequent wars in Europe, with fighting happening almost every year except for a few short periods. Even though this was a time of great learning and culture, many wars were fought with harsh methods and broken promises between friends.

The worst of these wars was the Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648. It began because of religious disagreements and caused great suffering in Germany and nearby lands. Many people lost their lives, and communities were broken apart.

The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This agreement let each ruler choose the religion for their own land, whether Catholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist. It also allowed people to practice their own faith even if it was not the official one of their state. This peace also marked a shift in how countries dealt with each other, moving away from religious battles to more practical concerns like power and land.

Major states

Holy Roman Empire

Since 1512, the Holy Roman Empire was also called the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The House of Austria held the position of Holy Roman Emperors since the mid-1400s. The Austrian rulers tried to create a large empire in Western Europe, though they did not have a strong central government.

The Austrian rulers grew their power by marriage. One ruler married a princess from Burgundy, adding the Burgundian Netherlands to their lands. Later, their son inherited Spain and its territories, and then more lands followed.

Spain

In 1492, Spain’s rulers sent Christopher Columbus to sail west. He landed on a new continent, the Americas. To avoid fights between Spain and Portugal over new lands, they signed a treaty dividing the world between them.

Spain became a very powerful nation under Philip II. Spain kept control of the Netherlands until people there revolted. Spain also controlled parts of Italy and won important battles, making it a leading power in Europe and the world.

France

The system of government in France from about 1450 until the French Revolution in 1789 is called the Ancien Régime. France faced many challenges, including wars and conflicts between different religious groups. Kings tried to strengthen their control over the country, but local nobles often resisted.

England

The time when Queen Elizabeth I ruled (1558–1603) is called the Elizabethan Era. It was a golden age for English culture, with great plays and poems being written. England also explored new lands and started colonies in North America.

Poland

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was one of the largest and most powerful countries in early modern Europe. It had a unique government system and a strong army known for its winged horsemen, the Winged Hussars.

Papacy

The leaders of the Christian Church, called Popes, had much influence during this time. They formed groups of Christian nations to support the Catholic religion. They also started missions to spread their faith around the world and created the calendar we use today, the Gregorian calendar.

Other political powers

Many important countries and regions shaped Europe during this time. Some of the powerful places included the Ottoman Empire, Early Modern Italy which had cities like the Papal States, Republic of Florence, and Republic of Venice. Other notable areas were the Kingdom of Portugal, the Dutch Republic, and the large Holy Roman Empire that included the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Habsburg monarchy. There were also many German states such as the Duchy of Prussia and Duchy of Bavaria. The strong Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire, along with Early Modern Sweden and Denmark–Norway, played big roles too. Other places like Early Modern Romania and the Kingdom of Hungary were also important during this period.