Entheogen

Entheogens are special kinds of substances that people have used for thousands of years. These substances can change how a person feels and thinks, helping them to experience new and deep thoughts. They are often used in spiritual and religious practices to help people feel closer to something greater than themselves.

Many cultures around the world have used entheogens in their ceremonies. For example, the Maya and Aztecs used certain mushrooms and plants in their rituals to connect with gods and help with healing. Even in ancient Greece, some people believed special drinks were used in religious events to create powerful experiences.

Today, scientists are studying these substances to see if they can help people with mental health problems like sadness and anxiety. This research shows that entheogens might have important uses beyond just spiritual practices. The experiences people have when using these substances are often compared to deep meditation or moments after nearly losing life, helping people gain new understandings about themselves and the world.

Terminology and etymology

The word entheogen was created in the late 1900s by Jonathan Ott, R. Gordon Wasson, and Carl A.P. Ruck. They wanted a better name than "hallucinogen" or "psychedelic" for certain substances. "Entheogen" comes from Greek words meaning "generating the divine within." This name focuses on how these substances have been used in spiritual and religious ways, rather than just for fun.

The word "hallucinogen" was thought to be unsuitable because it sounds like words about mental illness. The word "psychedelic" also had issues, as it sounded like words about mental health problems and was linked to the culture of the 1960s. Today, "entheogen" can mean the same as these older words, or it can be used to talk about these substances when they are used in special, meaningful ways instead of just for recreation. Some people believe this new word better shows how these substances can help people feel deeply connected to their spirits.

Historical and cultural use

Main article: History of entheogenic drugs

People around the world have used special plants and fungi in religious and healing ceremonies for a very long time. For example, hemp seeds found by archaeologists suggest that the Scythians used them in ceremonies a long time ago. In different parts of the world, people have used substances like ayahuasca in South America, psilocybin mushrooms in Mesoamerica, and peyote in North America for spiritual communication and healing.

These traditions often had special, careful ways to use these substances, focusing on their sacred and important meaning. For instance, some Native American groups use peyote in their religious ceremonies, and some Amazonian cultures use ayahuasca in rituals led by spiritual leaders.

By region

Africa

The best-known group in Africa that uses special plants for spiritual purposes is the Bwitists. They use a preparation made from the root bark of Tabernanthe iboga. Ancient Egyptians may have used the sacred blue lily plant in religious rituals, and some believe they used a special type of mushroom called Psilocybe cubensis in their ceremonies. The designs of crowns like the White Crown, Triple Crown, and Atef Crown might have been inspired by this mushroom. Evidence also shows that psilocybin mushrooms were used in Ivory Coast. Many other plants used in African rituals, such as Silene capensis sacred to the Xhosa, are still being studied by scientists.

Among the amaXhosa, traditional healers sometimes use a modern chemical called 2C-B instead of natural plants. They call it Ubulawu Nomathotholo, meaning "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".

East Africa

For many years, religious leaders have chewed khat leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.

Americas

Special plants have been very important in the spiritual lives of many American cultures for thousands of years. The first plant studied by scientists was the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii), documented by Richard Evans Schultes among the Kiowa people in what is now Oklahoma. In the 19th century, its use spread across North America, replacing the toxic mescal bean. Other well-known plants used by Mexican cultures include the alcoholic Aztec drink pulque, ritual tobacco, psilocybin mushrooms, morning glories, and Salvia divinorum.

Datura wrightii is sacred to some Native American groups and has been used in ceremonies and important rites by Chumash, Tongva, and others. For example, among the Chumash, a mother would give her 8-year-old son a special drink called momoy to help him grow spiritually. This was an important challenge for the boys, and not all of them survived. Adults also used momoy to feel stronger spiritually, especially in scary situations.

The mescal bean Sophora secundiflora was used by hunter-gatherer cultures on the Great Plains. Other important plants in North American traditions include the seeds of the Texas buckeye and jimsonweed (Datura stramonium). Evidence from old archaeological sites shows these plants were used thousands of years ago.

South America

Special plants in South America have deep roots in Indigenous traditions and are often used for healing, seeing the future, teaching about the universe, and bringing people together. The region has some of the most diverse and important uses of these plants in the world.

For thousands of years, plants from the genus Anadenanthera, like A. peregrina (yopo or cohoba) and A. colubrina (willka, vilca, cebil), have been very important in rituals across the continent. Their seeds are made into a special powder and used by Native American groups such as the Yanomami, Sikuani, and Piapoco. Among the Piaroa people, A. peregrina is called Ñuá and used by sniffing.

Salvia divinorum

The vine Banisteriopsis caapi, often mixed with other plants, creates a special drink known as ayahuasca. It is used by many Indigenous groups for healing, seeing the future, working with dreams, and bringing harmony to the community.

The coca leaf (Erythroxylum coca) is very important to Indigenous peoples in the Andean and Amazon regions. It is chewed or made into a special mix called mambe, which helps with talking, remembering, and feeling connected to the spirit world.

Among the Piaroa people, a plant called Malouetia sp. (dädä) is very sacred. It is used in special ceremonies to keep balance in the community, get advice from ancestors, and understand the world.

Rapé is a special snuff made from Nicotiana rustica, often mixed with ashes from trees. It is used by many Amazonian peoples, usually blown into someone’s nose by a shaman.

A special drink called guayusa is used by the Quechua people to help them dream about successful hunting trips.

Anadenanthera peregrina

Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi has been used in traditional medicine in the Andes for over two thousand years.

Asia

Indigenous peoples of Siberia have used Amanita muscaria in spiritual practices.

In Hinduism, Datura stramonium and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies.

The ancient drink Soma, mentioned in the Vedas, might have been a special plant used in rituals.

West Asia

The earliest evidence of coffee drinking appears in the 15th century in Yemen’s Sufi monasteries. Sufi monks drank coffee to help them stay focused during prayers.

Europe

Banisteriopsis caapi flower

Fermented honey, called mead, was an early special drink in the Aegean civilization, used before wine became common. It was linked to the myths about bees.

Dacians used cannabis in their religious ceremonies, as shown by ancient pots with burnt seeds found in tombs and shrines.

The tradition of the Eleusinian Mysteries in ancient Greece included a special ceremony with a drink called kykeon.

Some believe that gases like ethylene might have been used in ceremonies at Delphi in Classical Greece, but this is not certain.

Mushrooms are part of European culture, especially among Slavic and Baltic peoples. Some believe that mushrooms were important in the culture of the Rus' people.

Middle East

Some suggest that a plant called Syrian rue might have been used in ancient rituals, possibly mixed with other plants.

Oceania

In general, indigenous Australians are not thought to have used special plants, although there is secrecy around some traditions.

Kava has been used for at least 3,000 years by people across the Pacific Islands. It is believed to help people connect with spirits, especially ancestors.

There are no known uses of special plants by the Māori of New Zealand, except for a type of kava. People of Papua New Guinea use several types of mushrooms.

Pituri is a mix of leaves and wood ash chewed by Aboriginal Australians for energy or to feel relaxed. The leaves come from tobacco plants or a special type of plant called Duboisia hopwoodii. Ash is made from trees like Acacia, Grevillea, and Eucalyptus.

In religion

Hinduism

In ancient India, people used a special food made from a plant called cannabis, known as bhang. It was used as far back as 1000 BCE by Hindus. Very old texts from that time talk about cannabis as a special plant that helps people feel happy and calm.

Buddhism

Some people think that a special kind of mushroom called Amanita muscaria may have been used by Buddhist teachers a long time ago. In more recent times, some Buddhist teachers have talked about how these special plants might help people understand more about life and kindness. But others think these plants might not be helpful for Buddhist practices.

The shrine at Tel Arad, where the earliest use of cannabis in the Near East is thought to have occurred during the Kingdom of Judah

Judaism

Main article: Cannabis and Judaism

Some people have thought that a plant called cannabis might have been used in very old Jewish rituals. However, many experts think it was probably a different plant used for making things, not for special ceremonies.

Christianity

Flowering San Pedro, an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years. Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable peyote.

For non-psychoactive use of wine, see Sacramental wine

Some scholars think that in the very early days of Christianity, people might have used special plants in their ceremonies. But there has not been much study on this topic.

Peyotism

The Native American Church is also called Peyotism or the Peyote Religion. It is a religion that combines Native American traditions with some Christian beliefs. A special plant called peyote is used as part of their ceremonies.

Santo Daime

Santo Daime is a religion that started in Brazil in the 1930s. It mixes different religious ideas, including some from Catholicism and Native American traditions. People in Santo Daime ceremonies drink a special tea called ayahuasca, which helps them feel very focused during their rituals.

União do Vegetal

União do Vegetal is a religious group that started in Brazil in 1961. Members drink a special tea called Hoasca, made from two plants, as part of their religious meetings. In 2006, a court in the United States allowed this group to use the tea in their ceremonies.

Thelema

Main article: Thelema

The Thelema ceremony has special roles for leaders and helpers. At the end of the ceremony, people share a special drink and a piece of bread, and say that everything about them comes from the gods.

Research

See also: Eleusinian Mysteries and Soma (drink)

Important early studies of these experiences include the Marsh Chapel Experiment, led by a doctor and theology student named Walter Pahnke. In this careful study, students who took a special substance called psilocybin said they had deep religious experiences.

Since 2006, more studies at Johns Hopkins University found that, when done carefully, these experiences can feel very meaningful to people.

Research on these substances has faced challenges because of laws that limit their use. But recently, scientists have been looking at how they might help people dealing with tough emotions and illnesses. This work aims to combine old spiritual ideas with new ways to support healing.

Legal status

By entheogen

Psychoactive Amanita mushrooms: Legal status of psychoactive Amanita mushrooms
Ayuahuasca: Legal status of ayahuasca by country
Psychoactive cactus: Legal status of psychoactive cactus by country
Cannabis: Legality of cannabis ()
Ibogaine: Legal status of ibogaine by country
Psilocybin mushrooms: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms
Salvia divinorum: Legal status of Salvia divinorum

By country or territory

Some countries have laws that allow for traditional use of these special plants.

United Nations

Main article: Convention on Psychotropic Substances

Australia

Main article: Dimethyltryptamine § Australia

Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government thought about changing laws to control plants with DMT. This would have made Australia’s national flower, the golden wattle, illegal. The idea was stopped because of this problem.

United States

In 1963, a court decision made it harder for people to use certain plants for religious reasons. Later, in 2006, a case allowed a church to use a special tea for religious ceremonies.

Peyote is a controlled plant in the United States. But a law from 1978 lets Native American people use it for religious reasons.

In literature

Many books and stories talk about special plants and substances that change how people feel or think, often in important moments.

In Frank Herbert's book Dune universe, there is a special drug called melange (spice). It helps people travel faster than light and is very important to the whole world.
Philip K. Dick imagined a story where people ate a special mushroom called anochi [enoki] that changed their beliefs a long time ago.
In Aldous Huxley's book Island, people use a special mushroom they call "moksha medicine" during important life events, like becoming an adult or when someone is leaving this world.
Bruce Sterling’s book Holy Fire shows a future where many people use special plants as part of their everyday lives.
In Stephen King’s book The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, the main character gets important advice after using mescaline.
Alastair Reynolds’s book Absolution Gap describes a place ruled by leaders who use special mind-changing methods to control people’s beliefs.