History of Hungary

Hungary is a country in Central Europe that has a rich and complex history. Its modern borders, set after 1946, cover the Great Hungarian Plain, also known as the Carpathian Basin. For thousands of years, many different groups lived in this area, including Scythian tribes, Celtic tribes, Dalmatian tribes, Germanic tribes, Sarmatians, and the Romans.

In the early years of the Common Era, the Huns created a large empire here under Attila the Hun. Later, the Hungarians, led by Álmos and his son Árpád, settled in the Carpathian Basin between 862 and 895, forming the Principality of Hungary. In the year 1000, King Saint Stephen established the Christian Kingdom of Hungary, which became a strong European power.

During the medieval period, Hungary expanded and entered a union with Croatia. However, in the 16th century, the country faced invasions from the Ottomans. After a long struggle, Hungary was divided into three parts until it was reunited under Habsburg rule in the early 18th century.

Following World War I, Hungary lost large parts of its territory and population due to the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. The country went through various governments, including a period under German and Soviet occupation during World War II. After the war, Hungary became a socialist People's Republic until the end of communism in 1989-1990. Since then, Hungary has been a democratic nation and joined the European Union in 2004.

Early history

Prehistory

The earliest known humans in the area lived there about 300,000 years ago. By around 33,000 years ago, modern humans had arrived. Farming began around 6000 BC, and the use of metal started around 3000 BC.

Scythian golden deer shield ornaments from the Iron Age 6th century BC found in Hungary. Above, the Golden Deer of Zöldhalompuszta is 37 cm, making it the largest Scythian golden deer known. Below, the Golden Deer of Tapiószentmárton.

The Iron Age began around 800 BC. During this time, many different groups lived in the area, including the Scythians, Celts, and others. By 370 BC, the Celts had taken control of much of the land. They were strong and good at farming and making pottery.

Ancient peoples in Pannonia, 2nd century BC

Roman rule

Main articles: Pannonia and Roman Dacia

The Romans came to the area and took control. They built cities and roads, making life easier for people. However, wars and attacks sometimes caused trouble. Later, the Romans left, and other groups moved in.

Dacian Influence over Pannonia

Migration period

Main article: Migration Period

Many groups moved into the area during this time, causing changes and sometimes destruction. The Romans left, and new leaders took over. The land saw many battles and shifts in power.

Carpathian Basin in the 2nd century AD: provinces of the Roman Empire and the Barbaricum

In 453, a leader named Attila died, and his group broke apart. New groups, like the Ostrogoths and Gepids, took control for a while. Later, the Lombards and then the Avars came to rule the land.

The Avars controlled a large area and often fought with other empires. After some time, their power weakened, and new groups began to settle in the land.

Medieval Hungary

Conquest and early principality (895–1000)

The founding of the Hungarian state is linked to the Hungarian conquerors, who came from the Pontic steppes as a group of seven tribes. The Hungarians arrived under the leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád, establishing the Árpád dynasty, Hungary's first ruling family. They took control of the Carpathian Basin between 862 and 895, facing conflicts with the Bulgarians and Moravians along the way. They met little resistance and quickly settled near the Sava and Nyitra rivers. Their military strength allowed them to launch campaigns as far as modern Spain.

Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin depicted in the Chronicon Pictum

A defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 ended raids on western lands, though attacks on Byzantine-controlled areas continued until 970. Duke Géza of the Árpád dynasty aimed to integrate Hungary into Christian Europe and named his son Vajk, later King Stephen I, as successor. After Géza's death, Stephen defeated rival Koppány to secure his rule.

The name Hungary comes from the term used for the Magyars in Byzantine sources. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine texts also called the Magyar state "Tourkia."

Patrimonial Kingdom (1000–1301)

Hungarian campaigns across Europe in the 10th century. Between 899 and 970, according to contemporary sources, the researchers count 47 (38 to West and 9 to East) raids in different parts of Europe. From these campaigns only 8 were unsuccessful and the others ended with success.

Hungary became recognized as an Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I, who was crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary. He established bishoprics, churches, and monasteries, and switched from a runic-like script to the Latin alphabet. The land was divided into counties, each governed by a royal official called an ispán.

King Saint Ladislaus strengthened the Hungarian state and the influence of Christianity. He consolidated power and ended internal and foreign threats. Ladislaus's sister helped arrange a union between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Hungary in 1102.

The Árpád dynasty ruled through the 12th and 13th centuries. King Béla III was very wealthy and expanded the kingdom southward and westward. King Andrew II led the Fifth Crusade and issued the Diploma Andreanum, which protected the rights of the Transylvanian Saxons.

King Stephen I of Hungary, patron saint of Kings (Chronicon Pictum)

Andrew II agreed to the Golden Bull of 1222, which limited royal power and protected the rights of nobles. This helped establish the Parliament, giving nobles more influence over the king.

Mongol invasions

In 1241–1242, Hungary faced a major attack from the Mongols. The Hungarian army was defeated at the Battle of Mohi, and King Béla IV fled. Many people died, and many settlements were destroyed. The Mongols left behind siege engines and engineers. King Béla IV built many stone castles to defend against future attacks. Though the Mongols returned in 1286, the new defenses stopped them. These castles later helped against the Ottoman Empire.

This weapon was esteemed in the Hungarian royal court as the Sword of Attila. A Hungarian sabre from the first half of the 10th.

Late medieval period (1301–1526)

After a period without a king, Charles I restored royal power and defeated rival lords. He used wealth from gold mines to strengthen Hungary. The Renaissance began in Hungary, with a printing press established in Buda in 1472.

Louis the Great expanded Hungary's rule to the Adriatic Sea and became king of Poland. He fought successful wars against Venice and led campaigns against the Ottomans.

After Louis the Great's death, Sigismund took the throne by marrying Louis's daughter Mary. Sigismund faced challenges from nobles but eventually restored central authority. He called the Council of Constance to address church issues.

John Hunyadi became a powerful lord and led successful fights against the Ottoman Turks, including the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. His son, Matthias Corvinus, became king in 1458. Matthias was known for his military skill, building a strong army called the Black Army, and for his love of learning, collecting books for his famous library.

Events from 1490 to 1526 led to Hungary facing the Ottoman Empire. Hungarian leaders focused more on protecting noble privileges than preparing for defense. In 1514, a peasant rebellion was crushed, weakening order. By 1526, the Ottoman Empire had grown strong, and Hungary was not ready. The Hungarian army was defeated at the Battle of Mohács, and King Louis II died in the battle.

Early modern period

Ottoman wars

After the Ottomans won a big battle, they took over large parts of Hungary and kept moving forward until 1556. This time was full of confusion, with Hungarian leaders choosing two kings at once, Szapolyai and the Austrian Ferdinand of Habsburg. Fighting between these two kings made Hungary weaker. When the Turks took Buda in 1541, Hungary split into three parts.

The northwestern part of Hungary stayed under Habsburg rule, led by King Ferdinand. This area included parts of what is now Slovakia, western Transdanubia, Burgenland, and northeastern Hungary. The eastern part, including Partium and Transylvania, started as an independent area but later became a part of the Ottoman Empire. The central part, with Buda as its capital, became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Many places were destroyed by constant wars. People in these areas could only live safely in bigger towns protected by the Sultan.

Anti-Habsburg uprisings

Further information: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)

Between 1604 and 1711, there were many uprisings against Habsburg rule. Most of these happened in Royal Hungary but were planned from Transylvania. The last big uprising was led by Francis II Rákóczi, who became the leader of Hungary after the Habsburgs were removed in 1707.

Even though the rebels had some wins, like almost catching the Austrian Emperor Joseph I, they lost a big battle in 1708. After the uprising ended in 1711, Rákóczi escaped to Poland, then France, and finally Turkey, where he died in 1735 in Tekirdağ. The Austrians tore down many border castles to prevent any more uprisings.

Modern history

Period of Reforms (1825–1848)

Hungarian nationalism grew among intellectuals influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and Romanticism. It focused on the Magyar language, which replaced Latin in state and schools. In the 1820s, Emperor Francis I was forced to convene the Hungarian Diet, starting a Reform Period. Progress was slowed by nobles who wanted to keep their privileges.

Count István Széchenyi, a leading statesman, pushed for modernization. The Hungarian Parliament met in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged, focusing on peasants and laborers. Lajos Kossuth became a leader in Parliament. Habsburg rulers tried to block industrialization and liberal reforms, but Hungary still made progress.

Revolution and war of independence

On 15 March 1848, demonstrations in Pest and Buda led to a list of Twelve Demands. The Hungarian Diet used the Revolutions of 1848 to pass the April Laws, which included many civil rights reforms. Emperor Ferdinand I first accepted these demands but later rejected them. In 1849, Hungary declared independence and formed its first republic with Lajos Kossuth as leader.

Hungary faced rebellion from minority groups supported by the Habsburgs. Despite early successes, Hungary was defeated by combined Russian and Austrian forces in 1849. General Artúr Görgey surrendered, and leaders were executed or exiled.

Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)

Major military losses led Emperor Joseph to agree to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, creating a dual monarchy. Hungary and Austria were governed separately but shared a monarch and common foreign and military policies. The economy developed, and Budapest became a major city.

World War I

After Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in 1914, Austria-Hungary joined World War I. Hungary provided many soldiers and suffered heavy losses. By 1918, the empire collapsed, and Hungary declared independence.

Interwar period (1918–1939)

After World War I, Hungary lost large territories and faced political instability. A short-lived communist regime was followed by a right-wing government under Admiral Horthy. The Treaty of Trianon in 1920 reduced Hungary’s size significantly, leading to widespread dissatisfaction.

World War II

During World War II, Hungary was part of the Axis powers. It joined Germany’s invasion of Yugoslavia and participated in Operation Barbarossa. By 1944, Soviet forces invaded Hungary, leading to a brutal siege of Budapest. The war caused massive destruction and loss of life.

Post-war communist period

After the war, Soviet forces occupied Hungary. A communist government was established, and many changes were made to the economy and society. In 1956, a revolution against communist rule was crushed by Soviet forces, leading to many deaths and imprisonments.

Third Republic (since 1989)

In 1989, Hungary transitioned to democracy. Free elections were held in 1990, and Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. The country has seen changes in government and economic policies since then.