History of Romania

Romania has been home to people for thousands of years, since the paleolithic times. In ancient times, the Dacians lived in the area and built a strong kingdom. After wars with the Roman Empire, the Romans took over in 106 AD, turning the land into a Roman province. Over time, many different groups moved into the area, shaping Romanian culture and history.

During the early Middle Ages, many groups settled in Romania, including the Cumans. Small Romanian states began to form, and by the 1300s, two main areas, Wallachia and Moldavia, became important. These areas often fought to keep their independence from bigger powers like the Ottoman Empire.

In the 1800s, Romania worked toward becoming a unified country. In 1859, Wallachia and Moldavia joined together, and Romania became fully independent in 1877. During World War I, Romania first stayed neutral but later joined the Allied Powers. After the war, many areas joined Romania, making it larger than before.

During World War II, Romania was pulled into the conflict, first fighting with Germany and Italy and later switching to the Allies. After the war, Romania became a socialist republic. In 1989, a big revolution led Romania to become a democracy and start building a market economy.

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Transylvania, Bronze Age in Romania, Prehistory of Southeastern Europe, Cucuteni culture, Hamangia culture, and Hațeg Island

Scientists found very old bones in a cave in Romania in 2002. These bones are from people who lived a long time ago, about 34,950 years back. They are some of the oldest human remains ever found in Europe.

In a place called Cucuteni in northeastern Romania, there were early settlements from one of the first big groups of people in Europe. This area had one of the earliest known places where people made and used salt, starting around 6050 BC.

Dacia

Main articles: Celts in Transylvania, Dacians, Dacia, Domitian's Dacian War, Trajan's Dacian Wars, and Getae

The Dacians lived in an area that is now modern Romania. They were part of the Thracians and had their own kingdom.

Early writings from around 440 BC mention the Dacians. They had leaders and kings over many years. One famous king was Burebista, who ruled from 82 to 44 BC and made the Dacian kingdom strong.

In 106 AD, the Romans conquered Dacia and made it part of their empire. The Dacians lived in different areas, and some stayed independent even after the Romans took over.

The Dacians had their own culture and beliefs. They believed in a god named Zalmoxis and had special priests. Their capital city was Sarmizegetusa.

A kingdom of Dacia existed as early as the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. There were many conflicts with other groups like the Bastarnae and the Romans. King Burebista was a strong leader who expanded the kingdom and conquered other lands.

Burebista changed the capital to Sarmizegetusa Regia, which became important for the Dacians. After Burebista died, the kingdom split into parts. The Dacians were known for their strength and fought against Roman forces for many years.

Burebista ruled from 82 to 44 BC. He reorganized the army and tried to improve the people’s behavior. He expanded the kingdom to its largest size. He conquered the Bastarnae and Boii and even influenced Greek towns on the Black Sea.

Burebista stopped local groups from making their own coins and used Roman coins instead. He moved the capital to Sarmizegetusa Regia, which remained important for a long time, especially under King Decebalus.

The Dacians were often mentioned during the time of the Roman emperor Augustus. They were not fully conquered but often crossed the Danube to attack Roman areas.

During a conflict called the War of Actium, King Cotisa was courted by Roman leaders. He eventually allied with one of them, Mark Antony. Later, the Romans punished Cotisa, and he may have died fighting them.

According to writers, Mark Antony claimed that Augustus tried to make an alliance with Cotisa by offering his daughter in marriage, but Cotisa refused and joined Mark Antony instead. Other writers say this story may not be true and could have been made up by Mark Antony.

After Augustus won the civil wars, the Romans dealt with the Dacian ruler Cotisa, who was defeated around 25 BC. Augustus claimed the Dacians were subdued, but they still attacked Roman areas. King Cotisa was succeeded by Comosicus, and later by Scorilo, who may have been the father of Decebalus.

The Dacians often attacked Roman lands in Moesia. Emperors Tiberius and Caligula paid the Dacians to stay peaceful. During the time of Emperor Nero, troops were taken away from the Dacian border. After Nero died, the Dacians tried to invade Moesia but were defeated by Roman forces.

King Duras ruled from AD 69 to 87. He was followed by Decebalus. Duras may have been the same person as Diurpaneus, who led attacks against the Romans.

The Roman governor Oppius Sabinus went to war with the Dacians after they attacked Roman lands. Diurpaneus defeated and killed Oppius Sabinus. This scared the Romans, so Emperor Domitian led his army into the area. The Dacians were pushed back, but a Roman commander was defeated by Diurpaneus.

King Decebalus ruled from AD 87 to 106. He fought two wars with the Romans from AD 85 to 89. In AD 85, the Dacians crossed the Danube and attacked Moesia. In AD 87, Roman troops were defeated by Decebalus, who later took the name Decebalus. The Romans won a battle in AD 88, but had to make peace because of other problems, allowing the Dacians to remain independent. Decebalus received help from Rome.

Emperor Trajan decided to conquer Dacia to gain control of its gold mines and to end the treaty with Decebalus. In his first campaign from 101 to 102, Trajan besieged the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and took part of the land. Trajan attacked again in AD 105, besieged Sarmizegethusa, and Decebalus died. A new city was built on the ruins, and part of Dacia became a Roman province.

The Dacians used a weapon called the falx, which was effective against Roman soldiers. Trajan built a column in Rome to honor his victory.

Roman Dacia (106–275 AD)

Main article: Roman Dacia

Roman Dacia was organized as a Roman province. It was an important area for mining, agriculture, and trade. Many Roman citizens and veterans settled there, and cities grew up around old military camps. The province was important for the Roman military in the Balkans.

The Romans brought many people from different parts of the empire to live in Roman Dacia. Although the Romans took over, much of the land stayed outside direct Roman control. The Dacians were influenced by Roman culture and many became Romanized over time.

There were some conflicts, and the Dacians rebelled against Roman rule at least twice. Despite these challenges, Roman Dacia prospered for many years until it was eventually abandoned by the Romans in AD 275.

Roman soldiers from Dacia were sent to serve in different parts of the empire. They were given Roman citizenship when they retired. An effort was made to populate the cities and develop the land, bringing in settlers from all over the Roman world.

Although the Romans destroyed the Dacian kingdom, much of the land remained outside direct Roman control. The conquest changed the balance of power in the region. Many Dacians became Romanized over time. Later, new conflicts arose, and in AD 183, there was a war in Dacia involving future Roman emperors.

Some writers say that the Roman emperor Decius had to deal with the Carpo-Dacians who took over Dacia and Moesia. Germanic and Celtic tribes, especially the Goths, began to move into the area and eventually drove out the Romans. By AD 275, the Romans left Dacia. There were still Dacians around AD 336 when the Roman emperor Constantine fought against them.

The province was left by Roman troops, and Roman citizens from the towns and lands of Dacia were moved to Moesia. Under the emperor Diocletian, the Romans built fortifications on both sides of the Danube to protect the border.

Constantinian reconquest of Dacia

In AD 328, the emperor Constantine the Great built a bridge over the Danube at Sucidava, hoping to reconquer Dacia, which the Romans had left. In AD 332, Constantine fought against the Goths with the help of the Sarmatians. He took the title Gothicus Maximus for his victory. In AD 334, Constantine fought the Sarmatians and took control of the area. He settled some Sarmatians as farmers and used others in his army. The new border in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line. Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in AD 336. Some areas north of the Danube resisted until the time of the emperor Justinian.

Tribes like the Victohali, Taifals, and Thervingians lived in Dacia after the Romans left. Archaeological evidence shows that Gepids were in Transylvania. The region was later conquered by the Huns in AD 376 and stayed under their control until the death of Attila in AD 453. The Gepid tribe used it as a base until AD 566 when they were destroyed by the Lombards. The Lombards left, and the Avars controlled the area for 230 years until AD 791 when Charlemagne defeated them. During this time, Slavic people also arrived.

The Hellenic chronicle might be the first mention of Romanians in Pannonia and Eastern Europe during Attila's time, suggesting that the Proto-Romanian language developed from Vulgar Latin in the 5th century. Words like "torna, torna fratre" recorded by writers in the late 6th century show the existence of a Romance language. An 11th-century writer mentioned a Christian people called N.n.d.r. along the Danube, identified by some as Romanians.

Name

Main article: Getae § Getae and Dacians

The Dacians were known as Getae in Ancient Greek writings and as Daci or Getae in Roman documents. The names Getae and Dacians were used interchangeably, though sometimes they referred to different regions. Modern historians often use the term Geto-Dacians. Strabo and Pliny the Elder said that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language.

The name Dacians came from the western tribes who first came into contact with the Romans. According to Strabo, the original name was Daoi. The name Daci appears in various forms in ancient sources. Greeks used forms like Dakoi and Daoi, while Latins used Davus, Dacus, and Dacisci.

There are similarities between the names of the Dacians and the Dahae, an Indo-European people east of the Caspian Sea. Scholars suggest links between these two groups.

By the end of the 1st century AD, all people in the lands that are now Romania were known to the Romans as Daci, except for some Celtic and Germanic tribes and people from the east.

Carpi and Costoboci

Main articles: Carpi (people) and Costoboci

The Carpi were a group of tribes living north-east of Roman Dacia. Most scholars think they were a North Thracian tribe and part of the Dacians. Some historians classify them as Slavs. The Carpi lived in areas now part of modern Moldavia and Wallachia. They became more united in the 3rd century and were known as the Carpi.

Ancient sources before AD 104 placed the Carpi between Galicia and the mouth of the Danube. The name Carpi comes from the Carpathian mountains. The Carpi and Carpathian words come from a root meaning "cut." The Carpi are shown as Dacians in some writings, especially because of place-names ending in –dava. The Carpi had their own culture, known as the Poienesti culture.

The Costoboci were likely ethnically Dacian, though some think they were Slavic or Sarmatian. They lived in the southern Carpathians. Some scholars think they were a mix of Celtic and Thracian groups. The Costoboci appear in writings after Trajan's conquest as a Dacian group. Their names do not sound Slavic, supporting the idea that they were Thraco-Dacian.

Culture

Body-painting was common among the Dacians. It may have had religious meaning. They practiced symbolic-ritual tattooing or body painting for both men and women, with symbols passed down through generations.

Dacian religion was important, and some think Dacia was a theocratic state led by priest-kings. The capital Sarmizegethusa shows signs of possible co-rulership with a high king and high priest. Ancient writers mention Dacian priests like Deceneus, Comosicus, and Vezina. There were different groups of priests, such as "god-worshipers," "smoke-walkers," and "founders." Influences from Hellenistic and Oriental cultures can be seen, along with beliefs about the afterlife.

The Goth Jordanes wrote about Deceneus, the highest priest, and linked the Dacians to the Goths. The Dacians believed in gods like Zalmoxis, Gebeleizis (god of storms), and Bendis (goddess of the moon and hunting). Bendis's worship was introduced into Attica by Thracian residents and became popular in Athens.

Early Middle Ages

Main articles: Romania in the Early Middle Ages and Origin of the Romanians

See also: Migration Period

Between the years 271 and 275, Roman soldiers and leaders left the land called Dacia. After that, a group called the Goths came and lived there. They mixed with the local people for many years. Later, other groups like the Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Bulgars came to the area. Some parts of the land were ruled by the First Bulgarian Empire until around the year 1000.

After a leader named Kubrat died in 665, many Bulgars followed a man named Asparukh westward. They settled near a place called the Ongal, north of the Danube Delta. From there, they often attacked lands to the south. In 680, a big battle happened where the Bulgars defeated a large army led by a leader from the south. After this, a new country called the First Bulgarian Empire was formed. Its borders reached the Carpathian mountains and stretched far to the east.

The Bulgars had strong rivals, like the Avars and the Khazars. To protect themselves, they built big ditches along their borders. Later, a new leader named Krum took charge and focused on defeating old enemies. He successfully took over lands from the Avars and ruled more territory, stretching from the Danube River to areas near present-day Budapest.

High Middle Ages

Main article: Romania in the Middle Ages

See also: Moldavia in the Middle Ages, Transylvania in the Middle Ages, Wallachia in the Middle Ages, and Founding of Wallachia

During the Middle Ages, the Bulgarian Empire controlled areas north of the Danube River from 681 until around 1422. These lands were called Transdanubian Bulgaria. We know little about this time because many records were lost.

Different groups like the Pechenegs, Cumans, and Uzes lived in what is now Romania until the 1300s when the areas of Wallachia and Moldavia were founded.

Many people moved into the region. Leaders of Hungary invited settlers from places like Germany. The Romanians began to appear in records from this time.

Leaders such as Vlad III the Impaler and Stephen the Great defended their lands against invaders. Stephen the Great was especially famous for his long rule and many victories, including a big win in 1475. He built many beautiful churches and monasteries.

Early modern period

Main articles: Early Modern Romania, National awakening of Romania, Regulamentul Organic, Moldavian Revolution of 1848, and Wallachian Revolution of 1848

See also: Early Modern Moldavia, Early Modern Transylvania, and Early Modern Wallachia

Ottoman Romania

After a big battle in 1526, parts of what is now Romania were ruled by different groups. By the mid-1500s, the Ottoman Empire controlled many areas, but places like Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania kept some of their own rules and leaders. Some areas, though, were fully under Ottoman control.

Leaders like Vasile Lupu and Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia, and Matei Basarab and Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia became important during this time. Transylvania had a special leader, John II, who made a rule allowing people different religions to live together peacefully.

For a short time, a leader named Michael the Brave ruled parts of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania together. After he died, these places went back to being separate but still kept some of their own ways of governing.

Revolutions of 1848 and formation of modern Romania

In 1848, people in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania tried to make big changes. They wanted independence and equality, but they didn’t get everything they hoped for. These ideas helped plant the seed for Romania to become one country.

United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia

After the failed revolution, Romania’s leaders worked to join Moldavia and Wallachia together. In 1859, Alexandru Ioan Cuza became the leader of both places, and by 1862, they were officially one country called the United Principalities of Romania. Transylvania did not join at this time.

Independence and Kingdom of Romania

Main articles: Romanian War of Independence, Kingdom of Romania, and United Principalities

In 1866, Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen became the ruling prince of Romania after replacing another leader. Romania became independent from the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). In 1881, Romania became a kingdom, and Prince Carol was named King Carol I of Romania.

From 1878 to 1914, Romania grew and became more stable. During the Second Balkan War, Romania worked with Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro against Bulgaria. Romania gained new lands and set up new areas to govern.

World War I

Main article: Romania in World War I

When World War I began in 1914, Romania was caught between powerful neighbors. King Carol I, who favored Germany, had died in 1914. His successor, King Ferdinand I, chose to join the Entente powers in 1916, hoping to gain control of Transylvania, where many Romanians lived.

Romania entered the war with hope but faced tough battles. Though they made early gains, they were pushed back by German forces. The war brought great hardship to Romania, and many lives were lost before peace was finally reached.

Greater Romania (1918–1940)

Main article: Greater Romania

Before World War I, the rule of Michael the Brave over Wallachia, Transylvania, and Moldavia for five years was seen as an early step toward a modern Romania. World War I was very important for building Romanian national pride.

In 1918, Romania joined with Bukovina. In 1919, the Treaty of Saint Germain agreed to this union, and in 1920 some Allies recognized the union with Bessarabia through the Treaty of Paris. On December 1, leaders from Transylvania decided to join Romania through the Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia. Romanians celebrate this event every year as the Great Union Day, a national holiday.

The term România Mare (Great or Greater Romania) describes Romania during the years after World War I. At this time, Romania was at its largest size, covering almost 300,000 km² (120,000 sq mi). This included all the historic lands where Romanians lived.

Through peace agreements, many areas with most Romanians became one country. This also brought in many people from other backgrounds. The 1923 Constitution of Romania recognized these groups. They could elect leaders and form political groups, though they did not get wide self-rule as hoped in 1918. By 1930, Romania had about 18 million people. Most, around 72%, were Romanians, and about 28% were from other backgrounds. Sometimes this led to fights, like the Hungarian–Romanian War and the Tatarbunary Uprising. To help keep peace, Romania worked with Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia in the Little Entente in 1921. Romania also made a defense agreement with Poland in 1921 and later joined the Balkan Entente with Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey in 1934, as they were worried about Bulgaria.

Until 1938, Romania was officially a liberal constitutional monarchy, though its governments often changed. After World War I, the National Liberal Party was powerful but became more focused on its own interests and national pride. By 1927, the National Peasants' Party took power. From 1930 to 1940, Romania had over 25 different governments. In the late 1930s, disagreements between the fascist Iron Guard and other groups sometimes led to violent fights.

When King Ferdinand died in 1927, his son Prince Carol could not become king because of past problems in his marriage. After three years away, Carol returned with support and became king again.

The worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929 also hurt Romania. The early 1930s saw protests, high unemployment, and strikes. The government sometimes used force to stop these protests. By the mid-1930s, Romania's economy improved and industry grew, though most people still worked in farming.

As the 1930s went on, Romania's democracy weakened. The king could dismiss the parliament and call new elections whenever he wanted, leading to many governments in quick succession.

Many political groups became very nationalistic and some supported extreme ideas. The National Liberal Party lost power to other groups, including the National Peasants' Party, the Romanian Front, the National-Christian Defense League (LANC), and the Iron Guard. In 1935, LANC joined with the National Agrarian Party to create the National Christian Party (NCP). The Iron Guard used fear and strong feelings to gain support.

The Iron Guard used violent methods, and governments sometimes responded with force. In December 1937, King Carol named LANC leader Octavian Goga as prime minister. But in February 1938, Carol dismissed Goga’s government and took more control, creating a royal dictatorship. In April 1938, Carol arrested Iron Guard leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. In November 1938, Codreanu and others died during an alleged escape attempt.

The royal dictatorship did not last long. In March 1939, a new government formed under Armand Călinescu. In September 1939, just after World War II began, Călinescu was killed by members of the Iron Guard seeking revenge.

In April 1939, France and the United Kingdom promised to protect Romania’s independence. However, talks with the Soviet Union failed. In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed an agreement that showed Soviet interest in Bessarabia. After losing land in 1940 and facing growing unpopularity, Carol had to step down and named general Ion Antonescu as Prime Minister with full powers.

World War II and aftermath (1940–1947)

Main articles: Romania during World War II and Bombing of Romania in World War II

During World War II, Romania faced many big changes. At first, Romania tried to stay neutral, but pressure from nearby countries made it hard. Romania lost some land to the Soviet Union and Hungary, which made many Romanians unhappy.

In 1940, a new leader named Ion Antonescu took control with help from a group called the Iron Guard. They made many strict rules and took over the government. Later, Romania joined a group of countries led by Germany called the Axis.

In 1941, Romania and Germany fought together against the Soviet Union. Romanian soldiers fought in many battles, including at a big battle called Stalingrad.

In 1944, King Michael I led a change in leadership that turned Romania against Germany and joined the Allies. This helped end the war in Romania but also brought Soviet forces into the country. After the war, Romania had to pay money to the Soviet Union and lost some land, but kept Northern Transylvania as part of the country.

Communist period (1947–1989)

Main article: Socialist Republic of Romania

After World War II, Soviet occupation helped the Communist Party take control of Romania. The king stepped down, and in 1947, Romania became a people's republic. For many years, the Soviet Union controlled Romania's military and economy.

Romania’s leader from 1948 to 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. He made big changes, like taking over banks and big businesses. Later, under Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romania started making its own decisions. Ceaușescu spoke out when the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968 and kept ties with Israel and West Germany.

In the 1980s, life became very hard for Romanians because of strict rules and lack of basic goods. Ceaușescu focused on paying off the country’s debts, which made things worse. His secret police, the Securitate, watched everyone closely. By the end of 1989, people rose up against him, leading to big changes in the country.

1989 Revolution

Main article: Romanian Revolution

The Romanian Revolution led to the end of the Communist government in Romania. Many people lost their lives in cities like Timișoara and Bucharest. After days of protests, a large gathering in Bucharest that was supposed to support the leader turned against him. He and his wife tried to escape by helicopter but were later caught by the army.

A new group called the National Salvation Front took control and began working toward democracy and freedom for the people. Some of the strict rules from the old government were quickly changed after this event.

Transition to free market (1990–2004)

After a big change in the country, new leaders started to bring in ideas about democracy and a free market. They began with small changes to help the economy grow. Many of the new leaders had worked with the old government before, which made some people unhappy.

There were big protests in 1990 because people did not trust the new leaders. After some peaceful protests, things turned a bit rough, and some buildings were damaged. Leaders asked for help to keep things under control. Later, it was found that some people in the government were involved in making things worse.

In 1991, Romania created a new set of rules for how the country would be run. This helped guide the country during a time of big changes. Over the next few years, different groups and leaders took turns running the country, trying to make it better and stronger. In 2004, a new president was elected, bringing fresh ideas and hope for the future.

NATO and the European Union membership (2004–present)

Main articles: Accession of Romania to the European Union, Romanian membership of the European Union, 2012 Romanian protests, and 2017–2019 Romanian protests

After the Cold War ended, Romania built stronger connections with Western Europe. In 2004, the country joined NATO, and in 2007, it became a member of the EU.

Over time, many people from Romania moved to live in places like Italy, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Hungary.

In 2025, Romania became part of the Schengen Area, which allows people to travel freely between many European countries.

Romanian rulers

Here are the different leaders who have governed parts of Romania or the whole country throughout history:

• List of Wallachian rulers (up to 1859)
• List of Moldavian rulers (up to 1859)
• List of Transylvanian rulers (up to 1867)
• Domnitori of Romania (1862–1881)
• Kings of Romania (1881–1947)
• Presidents of Romania (since 1974)
• Prime ministers of Romania (since 1862)