History of the Incas

The Incas created a large empire called the Inca Empire, which was centered in modern-day Peru and Chile. It stretched about 4,000 kilometres from north to south, making it the biggest empire in the Americas before Europeans arrived. The empire began in the early 1200s when a leader named Manco Cápac founded a small kingdom called the Kingdom of Cuzco.

Over time, the empire grew quickly under leaders like Pachacuti. They used both conquest and peaceful ways to bring many lands into their rule, reaching far across the Andean mountains. However, trouble came when a civil war happened, and later the last Inca emperor, Atahualpa, was captured by a Spanish explorer named Francisco Pizarro. This led to Spanish control over the region.

The Incas called their empire Tawantin Suyu, meaning "The Four United Regions." The empire was split into four parts, all meeting at their capital city, Cusco. Even after the Spanish took over, some Inca people kept their traditions alive in a smaller area called the Neo-Inca State until the Spanish ended it in 1572.

Historical sources

Spanish chronicles

The first written records about the Inca Empire come from European writers. Later, people of mixed heritage and local writers also shared stories about the Incas. These writers gathered their information from people across the empire. However, they faced big challenges. They had to translate stories from a very different way of thinking, which often led to mistakes and disagreements in the records.

Some Spanish writers wanted to make their conquest seem right, so they described the Incas as very violent. Others, especially those linked to the Catholic Church, tried to fit Inca beliefs into their own stories. There were also writers of mixed heritage and local people who wanted to make the empire or their own family groups look better.

Incan sources

Before writing, the Incas used special songs to tell their history during ceremonies. They also used colorful cloths and boards with paintings to show the lives of their rulers. These were kept in a special place in Cusco. Some events were also remembered using quipus, a system of knotted strings, though we are not sure exactly how they worked.

The Incas tried hard to remember important events, but sometimes they left out or changed facts that they did not like. After meeting European culture, writing became the main way to share history. Over time, many stories mixed with European ideas, making it hard to know what is true about the Incas.

Historicity of sources

Historians study the Inca Empire using a mix of written records and archaeological findings. After the Spanish arrived in South America, they wrote about the Incas, offering important clues about their lives and customs. Archaeologists also dig up ruins and artifacts, helping us understand how the Incas built their cities and lived their daily lives. Together, these sources give us a clearer picture of the fascinating Inca civilization.

Chronology

Chronology according to the Peruvian historian José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu.

Chronology based on the works "Suma y Narración de los Incas" by Juan de Betanzos (1551) and "El Señorío de los Incas" by Pedro Cieza de León (1880)

Chronology according to the "Miscelánea antártica" by Miguel Cabello de Balboa (1586).

According to María Rostworowski, the victory against the Chanka took place in the early years of the 15th century.

Origins

See also: Inca mythology § Inca foundation legends

Legends

The Ayar Brothers

Four pairs of brothers and their tribes started from Pacaritambo. Among them were Ayar Cachi and Mama Huaco, along with others. They traveled to the Wanakawri mountain, where Ayar Cachi showed his strength. After dealing with Ayar Cachi, the group moved toward the valley of Cuzco. They met the local chief and decided this was a good place to settle. One brother stayed behind to connect them to the Sun, while the rest moved forward. They faced some challenges but eventually founded the city of Cuzco and began to build their homes and plant crops.

This story was shared by Juan de Betanzos, and other writers like Bernabé Cobo, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Martin de Murúa, Pedro Cieza de León, Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti, and Cristóbal de Molina.

Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo

This tale was told by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, who was descended from Tupac Yupanqui.

The Sun decided to help people by sending his children, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo. They began their journey from Lake Titicaca with a golden rod, looking for a place where it would sink into the ground. They finally found this spot at the valley of Cuzco. There, they settled and began teaching people new ways to live, building homes, and organizing the community into different groups.

Historical Explanation

The Inca people likely began as a group of travelers from the north, moving away from the collapsing Tiwanaku culture. They eventually reached Pacaritambo and then moved toward the Wanakawri mountain. From there, they aimed to control the Huatanay Valley, which was already home to many local groups. To avoid conflicts, the Incas formed alliances through marriage with nearby leaders, helping to establish peace and their rule in the area.

Kingdom of Cusco

Main article: Kingdom of Cusco § History

The Kingdom of Cusco started when Manco Capac ruled the area around the 13th century. It ended around 1438 when Pachacuti defeated the Chanka people. The kingdom was led by two groups, called the Hurin and Hanan, who each had their own part of the city.

Early rulers like Manco Capac and Sinchi Roca are often seen as part of stories about how Cusco began. Later leaders worked to make Cusco stronger by making agreements and winning over smaller groups. During a big fight with the Chanka people, a young prince named Cusi Yupanqui helped defend the city. Because of his success, he became the new leader, known as Pachacuti, and began changes that helped build a larger empire.

Inca Empire

Main article: Inca Empire

See also: List of wars involving the Inca Empire

Pachacuti changed the Kingdom of Cusco into a large empire called Tawantinsuyu. He created a central government led by the Sapa Inca, with four provinces: Chinchasuyu, Antisuyu, Kuntisuyu, and Qullasuyu. Pachacuti may have built Machu Picchu as a special home or place to relax.

Pachacuti would send spies to learn about nearby lands. He would then invite their leaders to join the Inca Empire by offering rich gifts and promising they would be better off. Most leaders agreed, and their children were taught about Inca ways before returning home to lead. This helped the Inca control many different places.

Tupac Inca, Pachacuti's son, expanded the empire north and south, conquering new lands. Huayna Capac, Tupac Inca's son, added more land to the south, making the empire stretch from Peru to parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia.

The Inca Empire had many different cultures and languages. Some groups, like the Chachapoya, were not happy being part of the empire. The Inca did not use money; instead, they helped each other through shared work and trading goods.

Civil War

Main article: Inca war of succession

In 1525, a sickness spread among the Incas, causing the death of the ruler Huayna Capac in Quito. Before he passed away, he had chosen Ninan Cuyuchi to be next in line, but Ninan Cuyuchi also fell ill and died without his father's knowing. Huascar learned about his father's death from his mother, who traveled to Cuzco. With two important nobles also sick, Huascar became the best choice to lead, and the leaders in Cuzco agreed.

Meanwhile, Atahualpa was leading armies far away and was not aware of these events. He was popular with the soldiers. Huascar saw Atahualpa as a threat because of his strength and support. Though Huascar allowed Atahualpa to stay as leader in Quito, he set conditions: no new military campaigns and recognition of Huascar as the main ruler. Over time, tensions grew between the brothers. Atahualpa built buildings that Huascar saw as untrustworthy actions. Messages between them led to anger, and soon both sides prepared for conflict.

Spanish conquest

Main article: Spanish conquest of Peru

Spanish explorers called conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, came from Panama and reached the Inca lands by 1526. They saw a rich land full of treasures and wanted to claim it. After getting permission from Spain, Pizarro planned to take over the area.

When the Spanish returned in 1532, the Inca Empire was weak. A sickness, maybe smallpox, had spread, and the Inca leader’s sons were fighting over who should rule. Pizarro had very few men—only 170—but he used clever tactics and new tools like horses and guns that the Incas had never seen before.

Pizarro met the Inca leader Atahualpa and asked him to follow their ways. When things went wrong, the Spanish attacked and captured Atahualpa. They promised to let him go if the Incas gave them gold and silver. The Incas filled a room with treasure, but Pizarro still did not let Atahualpa go. Instead, he had him killed. This started a long struggle as the Spanish continued to fight the Inca people who tried to defend their land.

Neo-Inca State

Main article: Neo-Inca State

Rebellion of Manco Inca

See also: Siege of Cusco

After a Spanish leader tried to take control of Cusco for himself, Manco Inca used this chance to recapture the city in 1536. However, the Spanish forces came back and took Cusco again.

Retreat to Vilcabamba

Manco Inca moved to the mountains of Vilcabamba and started what is called the Neo-Inca State. He and his descendants continued to lead there for 36 years, sometimes attacking the Spanish or encouraging uprisings against them. In 1572, the Spanish found the last Inca base and captured the final leader, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, ending the Inca rule.

Post-Spanish conquest

After the Inca Empire fell, the new Spanish rulers treated the local people harshly and destroyed many parts of their culture, including their advanced farming ways. The Spanish forced families to send one person to work in dangerous mines, especially the famous silver mine at Potosí. If a worker passed away, the family had to send another person to take their place.

The Spanish used the local languages, Quechua and Aymara, to share their beliefs with people in the Andean mountains. Today, these languages are still widely spoken. Over time, the Spanish created special schools for local leaders, teaching them reading, writing, and other subjects. However, after a big uprising led by Tupac Amaru II, these leaders lost some of their special rights.